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A&P I > Final Exam (Chp. SP, 13-15) > Flashcards

Final Exam (Chp. SP, 13-15) Flashcards

1
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin and end

A

begins at the foramen magnum and ends between L1 and L2

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2
Q

what are the functions of the spinal cord?

A

provides 2-way conduction pathway and serves as spinal reflex center

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3
Q

What are the three components that protect the spinal cord?

A

bone, meninges, and CSF

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4
Q

What is the space between bony vertebrae and the spinal dura mater made up of fat?

A

epidural space

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5
Q

What is the lumbar puncture?

A

can be safely performed inferior to L3 because it consist of fat

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6
Q

what is the conus medullaris?

A

cone-shaped end of the spinal cord

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7
Q

This region is made up of fibrous extension of the conus medullaris covered in pa mater that anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx?

A

filum terminale

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8
Q

What are denticulate ligaments composed and their function?

A

saw-toothed extensions of pia mater and to secure the spinal cord to the dura mater

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9
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord?

A

31

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10
Q

Which two regions of the spinal cord contain enlargements?

A

cervical and lumbar (where nerved serve the upper and lower limbs

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11
Q

What is the collection of nerve roots at inferior end of vertebral canal?

A

cauda equina

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12
Q

Which two grooves partially bisect the spinal cord?

A

ventral median fissure and dorsal median sulcus

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13
Q

Where is the gray matter located in the spinal cord?

A

forma an H-shaped connected by gray commisure enclosing the central canal

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14
Q

How can you denote the difference from the ventral and dorsal horns?

A

the dorsal horns are more narrow while the ventral horns are broad

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15
Q

What is the function of the dorsal horns?

A

interneurons that receive sensory input

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16
Q

What is the function of the ventral horns?

A

cell bodies of somatic motor neurons

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17
Q

What is the function of the lateral horns and their location?

A

cell bodies of autonomic (sympathetic) motor neurons. They are located specifically in the thoracic and superior lumbar segments

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18
Q

Which horns are the largest in cervical and lumbar regions which innervate limbs?

A

ventral horns

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19
Q

What type of nerve is the spinal nerve? Why?

A

Mixed because it consists of both sensory and motor neurons

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20
Q

What type of neurons are in the dorsal region of the spinal cord?

A

sensory neurons

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21
Q

What type of neurons are in the ventral region of the spinal cord?

A

motor neurons

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22
Q

Which region of the spinal cord contains axons of sensory neurons?

A

dorsal root

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23
Q

What is the dorsal root ganglion?

A

cells bodies of sensory neurons

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24
Q

What is the ventral root?

A

axons of motor neurons (both somatic and autonomic)

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25
Q

What is white matter?

A

myelinated and nonmyelinated nerve fibers organized into tracts. Each tracts composed of axons with similar destinations and fxns

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26
Q

What are the three directions that white matter can run ?

A
  1. Ascending: up to higher centers (sensory inputs)
  2. Descending: from brain to cord within cord lower levels (motor outputs)
  3. Transverse: from one side of the cord to others
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27
Q

How is white matter divided?

A

into 3 columns on each side (dorsal, lateral, and ventral funiculi)

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28
Q

What are the four neuronal pathway generalizations?

A

relay, symmetry, decussation and somatotpy

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29
Q

What is the purpose of the ascending pathway?

A

conducts sensory impulses upward to bran involving three successive neurons

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30
Q

What are first-order neurons?

A

sensory neuron by conducting impulses from cutaneous receptors and proprioreceptors and located cell body ganglion

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31
Q

What are second-order neuron?

A

an interneuron located in the cell body on dorsal horn of spinal cord and mendullary nuclei. Axon extend to thalamus and cerebellum

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32
Q

What are third-order neurons?

A

interneurons located in the cell body of the thalamus. Axon extends to primary somatosensory cortex

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33
Q

Which order is not located in the cerebellum?

A

third-order neurons

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34
Q

What are the three main ascending pathways?

A

dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway, Spinothalamic and Spinocerebellar

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35
Q

Which transmit sensory inputs that are difficult to localize precisely (pain, temperature, and crude touch)?

A

Spinothalamic pathway

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36
Q

Which ascending pathway conveys information about muscle or tendon stretch to cerebellum?

A

spinocerebellar pathway

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37
Q

Which ascending pathway transmits sensory inputs that can be localized precisely on body surface?

A

dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway

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38
Q

What are descending pathways?

A

efferent impulses from brain to spinal cord

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39
Q

what are the two types of descending pathways? Motor pathways?

A

direct and indirect pathways . Upper motor and lower motor neurons

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40
Q

Describe upper motor neurons?

A

pyramidal cells in primary motor cortex found in subcortical motor nuclei

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41
Q

Describe lower motor neurons?

A

ventral horn motor neurons

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42
Q

Describe direct pathways

A

axons of pyramidal cells from corticospinal tracts that cross over at decussation of pyramids in the medulla oblongata. Synapses with ventral horn motor neurons

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43
Q

What does the Direct Pathway regulate?

A

fast, fine, skilled movements

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44
Q

Describe the indirect pathways?

A

all motor pathways except pyramidal pathways

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45
Q

What does the Indirect Pathway regulate?

A

axial muscles maintaining balance and posture, muscles controlling coarse limb movements, and head, neck, and eye movements that follow objects in visual field

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46
Q

What spinal cord trauma occurs when there is loss of motor function?

A

paralysis

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47
Q

What is referred to as abnormal sensations in the spinal cord?

A

paresthesias

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48
Q

What spinal cord trauma results in impulses to not reach muscles caused by severe damage to ventral root and horn cells?

A

flaccid paralysis

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49
Q

How does spastic paralysis differ from flaccid paralysis?

A

Damage to upper motor neurons of primary motor cortex, no voluntary control, muscles stimulated by reflex activity

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50
Q

Define: transection in cervical region both upper and lower limbs affected

A

quadriplegia

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51
Q

What is paraplegia?

A

Transection between T1 and L1 only lower limbs affected

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52
Q

How does the effectors in the SMS and ANS differ?

A

SMS: skeletal muscles

ANS: cardiac and smooth muscles and glands

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53
Q

True or false. The ANS has a single neuron from CNS to effector organs with thick and heavily myelinated axons

A

False. This describes SMS. The ANS has 2-neuron chain from CNS to effector organs with thin and light myelinated or unmyelinated axons

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54
Q

What are the two-neurons involved in the ANS?

A

Preganglionic neuron (cell bod in CNS) and postganglionic neuron (cell body in autonomic ganglion outside CNS)

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55
Q

Which to two neurons in the ANS pathway n thin and lightly myelinated? Which is unmyelinated?

A

Preganglionic neurons are thin and lighty myelinated and postganglionic neurons are thin and unmyelinated

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56
Q

What is released from all neurons in the SNS?

A

ACh

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57
Q

What does the preganglonic axon release opposed to the postganglionic axon in the ANS?

A

The preganglionic axon releases ACh while the postganglionic release NE

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58
Q

Which nervous systems are excitatory or inhibitory?

A

SMS are alway excitatory while the ANS can either be excitatory or inhibitory

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59
Q

What are the two divisions in the ANS?

A

Parasympathetic and Sympathetic

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60
Q

Which division of the ANS mobilizing body during activity?

A

Sympathetic

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61
Q

Which division of the ANS promotes maintenance functions?

A

Parasympathetic

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62
Q

Define Dual innervation

A

both divisions generally serve same organs, but cause opposite effects

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63
Q

What is the Parasympaathetic division known as?

A

“Rest and digest” system

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64
Q

What is the Sympathetic division known as?

A

“Fight-or-flight”

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65
Q

What are the effects of the sympathetic division?

A

dilated pupils and bronchioles, increased heart rate, bp, and blood glucose levels, sweating, and shunting of blood from skin and digestive viscera to heart and skeletal muscles

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66
Q

What are the effects of the parasymapthetic division?

A

constricted pupils, glandular secretion, increased digestive tract motility, and smooth muscle activity leading to elimination of feces and urine

67
Q

Where is the origin of the sympathetic division?

A

thoracic and lumbar region of the spinal cord

68
Q

Where is the origin of the parasympathetic division of the ANS?

A

brain stem and sacral region of the spinal cord

69
Q

Which division of the ANS has long preganglionic and short postganglionic neurons? Location site?

A

Parasymapthetic which are located in or near the visceral effector

70
Q

Which division of the ANS has short preganglionic fibers and long postganglionic fibers? Location site?

A

Sympathetic division which is located near the spinal cord

71
Q

Due to the location of the Paraysympathetic neurons, where are the cell bodies centrally located?

A

craniosacral

72
Q

Due to the location of the Sympathetic neurons, where are the cell bodies centrally located?

A

thoracolmbar region

73
Q

List the four cranial nerves that are preganglionic fibers in the Parasympathetic division?

A

oculomotor, vagus, facial, and glossopharyngeal

74
Q

In the symapthetic division where arw the cell bodies of postganglionc neurons located?

A

sympathetic trunk ganglia, collateral ganglia, adrenal medulla

75
Q

In the sympathetic trunk, which effectors does the sympathetic trunk supply?

A

Supply effectors in the body wall, limbs, head, and thoracic cavity

76
Q

Which effectors do collateral ganglia supply?

A

Supply abdominal and pelvic organs

77
Q

What is the adrenal medulla referred to as regarding sympathetic ganglion?

A

the “misplaced” sympathetic ganglion

78
Q

In the Sympathetic division what is the pathway of preganglionic axons?

A

ventral root, spinal nerve, ramus communicans and sympathetic trunk

79
Q

What are the three things a preganglionic axon can do when entering the sympathetic trunk?

A
  1. Synapse in a sympathetic trunk ganglion
  2. Synapse in a collateral ganglion
  3. Synapse in a adrenal medulla
80
Q

What is the pathway for postganglionic axons serving effector in body wall and limbs?

A

postganglionic axons-> rami communicates -> spinal nerves -> effectors (sweat glands, arrector pili muscles and blood vessels

81
Q

What is the pathway for axons serving effectors in head and thoracic cavity?

A

postganglionic axons -> sympathetic nerves -> effectors ( heart and lungs)

82
Q

What is the pathway for axons serving effectors in the abdominal cavity?

A

preganglionic axon-> sympathetic trunk-> collateral ganglia (stomach, liver, intestines reproductive organs, kidneys, and urinary bladder)

83
Q

What is the pathway fro axons serving the effectors in the adrenal medulla?

A

preganglionic axons-> sympathetic trunk-> splanchic nerves-> adrenal medulla (nonepinephrine and epinephrine)

84
Q

What regulates most ANS effectors?

A

Visceral reflex arcs

85
Q

What are the 5 steps in the visceral reflexes?

A

Sensory receptor in viscera-> visceral sensory neuron-> integration center-> efferent pathway-> visceral effector

86
Q

Which type of fibers release ACh?

A

Cholinergic fibers

87
Q

Which type of fibers release norepinephrine?

A

Adrenergic fibers

88
Q

What are the two major classes of adrenergic receptors?

A

Alpha (1&2) and Beta (1,2&3)

89
Q

True or False. Effect of NE or NNE binding may be excitatory or inhibitory? State which are which if true

A

True. Receptors n the cardiac muscles are excitatory and receptors in the bronchioles are inhibitory

90
Q

What type effect does albuterol have?

A

Albuterol binds to 2 receptors without activating receptors; 2 activators

91
Q

Propranolo is a drug that blocks 1 receptor, what is tis known as?

A

Beta blockers

92
Q

What is the function of Atropine?

A

Blocks muscacrinic ACh receptors

93
Q

Describe sympathetic tone

A

state of partial constriction blood vessels which are maintained by sympathetic fibers

94
Q

Describe parasympathetic tone.

A

normal background level of parasympathetic activity

95
Q

What is the term that works together to control external genitalia?

A

Cooperative effects

96
Q

Which organs only have sympathetic innervation?

A

adrenal medulla, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles and most blood vessels

97
Q

Regarding localization and longevity state the different between the parasympathetic and sympathetic division.

A

The Parasympathetic division are highly localized lading to short life while the sympathetic division is widespread allowing long lasting effects

98
Q

What allows the sympathetic division to have it specific localization and specificity?

A

NE is inactivated slowly and NE and NNE are secreted into the blood

99
Q

State the reason for the Parasympathetic division localization and specificity?

A

ACh is quickly broken down

100
Q

In Autonomic function, what is the role of the spinal cord?

A

integration center for urination, defecation, erection, ad ejaculation reflexes

101
Q

What is the main ANS integration center?

A

Hypothalamus

102
Q

What is the role of the brain stem in Autonomic functioning?

A

exerts most direct influence over autonomic function

103
Q

What is the role of the cerebral cortex in Autonomic functioning?

A

influences ANS function via connections with limbic system via the hypothalamus

104
Q

Why are special sensory receptors considered to be “special?”

A

they are confined to the head

105
Q

Of the special senses which are photoreceptor(s)?

A

vision

106
Q

What type of receptors are taste and smell categorized?

A

chemoreceptors

107
Q

Which special sense(s) are mechanoreceptors?

A

hearing ad equilibrum

108
Q

How is the eye protected?

A

Fat cushion and bony orbit

109
Q

List the accessory structures of the eye.

A

eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles

110
Q

Which accessory structure is the transparent mucous membrane thereby producing lubricating mucus?

A

Conjuctiva

111
Q

What is the function of the lacrimal apparatus?

A

Produce tears (water, mucus, and lysozymes)

112
Q

What is the function of the lateral and medial rectus muscles?

A

Lateral: move eyes laterally

Medial: moves eye medially

113
Q

If I rotate my left eye to the right and downward which eye muscle is being used?

A

Inferior rectus muscle

114
Q

If I rotate my left eye to the left and upward which eye muscle is being used?

A

Inferior oblique muscle

115
Q

Which eye muscle allows my right eye to look upward at the balloon closer to my left eye?

A

superior rectus muscle

116
Q

Which eye muscle allows my left eye to look downward and laterally?

A

superior oblique muscle

117
Q

From innermost to outermost, what are the three layers of the eye?

A

inner layer (retina)-> vascular layer-> fibrous layer

118
Q

What is the fibrous layer composed? Two components?

A

dense avascular connective tissue

Sclera (white, opaque and posterior) and Cornea (transparent and anterior)

119
Q

The vascular layer is composed of 3 layers, what are they?

A

choroid, iris, and ciliary body

120
Q

Which component of the vascular layer controls diameter and size of pupil?

A

the iris

121
Q

What is the purpose of controlling diameter and size of pupil?

A

This regulated the amount of light entering the eye

122
Q

What are the three components of the ciliary body? State their function

A
  1. Ciliary muscles: control lens shape
  2. Ciliary processes: secrete aqueous humor
  3. Ciliary zonule: hold lens upright
123
Q

Of the vascular layer, which region is 5/6 of the posterior? State the function of this region

A

The Choroid are blood vessels that supply ALL layers of the eye and has melanin which absorbs light

124
Q

What are the names of the two layers the retina is composed?

A

pigmented layer and neural layer

125
Q

Which of the two layers in the retina contains melanin and a single layer of epithelial cells?

A

pigmented layer

126
Q

What is the pigmented layer of the retina?

A

a single layer of epithelial cells that contain melanin

127
Q

What is the neural layer of the retina?

A

three layers of neurons: ganglion cells, bipolar cells, and photoreceptors

128
Q

State the pathway of the signal output.

A

photoreceptors-> bipolar cells-> ganglion cells

129
Q

State the pathway of light.

A

ganglion cells-> bipolar cells-> photoreceptors

130
Q

______ is the axons of ganglion cells

A

Optic nerve

131
Q

What is considered to be the blind spot in the eye?

A

optic disc

132
Q

Why is there a blind spot?

A

this is where the optic nerve exits therefore there isn’t enough space for photoreceptors

133
Q

Regarding to light state the difference between rods and cones?

A

cones are for bright light while rods are for dim light

134
Q

In peripheral vision, are rods or cones used?

A

rods

135
Q

What type of vision are cones used for?

A

high-acuity color vision

136
Q

Are there more cones or rods?

A

rods

137
Q

Which two parts of the eye are contain cones?

A

Macula lutea and fovea centralis

138
Q

Describe the foeva centralis

A

exclusively cones; bipolar and ganglion cells layers pushed aside; region of greatest visual acuity

139
Q

How is the macula lutea different from the fovea centralis?

A

it is composed primarily of cones

140
Q

How is eye fluid divided in the eye?

A

By anterior and posterior segments of the lens

141
Q

Describe the posterior segment

A

filled with vitreous humor, transmits light, keeps retina layers tightly pressed together, and contributes to intraocular pressure

142
Q

How is the anterior segment divided?

A

anterior and posterior chamber

143
Q

what two parts is the anterior chamber in between?

A

between the cornea and iris

144
Q

what two parts is the poster posterior chamber between?

A

between the iris and lens

145
Q

Describe the segment located in front of the lens.

A

The anterior segment is filled with aqueous humor

146
Q

Describe the aqueous humor

A

produced by ciliary body, maintains intraocular pressure therefore supplying nutrients to the lens and cornea

147
Q

If a patient is diagnosed with intraocular pressure in their eye, what is the name of their disease?

A

Glaucoma

148
Q

Describe the lens

A

flexible, transparent, biconvex

149
Q

What is the function of the lens?

A

changes shape to precisely focus light on the retina

150
Q

If you look in the mirror and notice a cloudy and opaque covering over your left eye, what is the correct diagnosis?

A

cataract

151
Q

Define refraction.

A

Bending of a light wave when it enters a medium where its speed is different

152
Q

What type of lens diverges light rays?

A

concave

153
Q

What type of lens converges light rays?

A

convex

154
Q

Where in the eye is light refracted?

A

at the cornea and lens

155
Q

How is astigmatism caused?

A

This is caused by unequal curvatures in different parts of the cornea or lens

156
Q

If your eyeball is too long and distant objects are focused in front of the retina, what type of sight do you have?

A

Nearsightedness (myopia)

157
Q

How many feet should a normal eye see for far point of vision?

A

20 ft or 6m

158
Q

If attempting to see the name of the street from a far distance what does your eye do to focus?

A

ciliary muscles relax, ciliary zonule tightens and the lend flattens

159
Q

If your eyeball is too short and distant objects are focused behind retina, what type of sight do you have?

A

Farsightedness (Hyperopia)

160
Q

What are the three steps to restore focus in close vision?

A

accommodation of the lens, constriction of the pupils, and convergence of the eyeballs

161
Q

What is accommodation?

A

increasing refractory power of lens

162
Q

What occurs during accommodation?

A

ciliary muscles contract, ciliary zonule loosens, and lens recoils and bulges

163
Q

What is the loss of accommodation with age of close vision?

A

presbyopia

164
Q

What is emmetropia?

A

Normal eye vision

A&P I (8 decks)

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