Final Exam (Chp. SP, 13-15) Flashcards
1
Q
Where does the spinal cord begin and end
A
begins at the foramen magnum and ends between L1 and L2
2
Q
what are the functions of the spinal cord?
A
provides 2-way conduction pathway and serves as spinal reflex center
3
Q
What are the three components that protect the spinal cord?
A
bone, meninges, and CSF
4
Q
What is the space between bony vertebrae and the spinal dura mater made up of fat?
A
epidural space
5
Q
What is the lumbar puncture?
A
can be safely performed inferior to L3 because it consist of fat
6
Q
what is the conus medullaris?
A
cone-shaped end of the spinal cord
7
Q
This region is made up of fibrous extension of the conus medullaris covered in pa mater that anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx?
A
filum terminale
8
Q
What are denticulate ligaments composed and their function?
A
saw-toothed extensions of pia mater and to secure the spinal cord to the dura mater
9
Q
How many pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord?
A
31
10
Q
Which two regions of the spinal cord contain enlargements?
A
cervical and lumbar (where nerved serve the upper and lower limbs
11
Q
What is the collection of nerve roots at inferior end of vertebral canal?
A
cauda equina
12
Q
Which two grooves partially bisect the spinal cord?
A
ventral median fissure and dorsal median sulcus
13
Q
Where is the gray matter located in the spinal cord?
A
forma an H-shaped connected by gray commisure enclosing the central canal
14
Q
How can you denote the difference from the ventral and dorsal horns?
A
the dorsal horns are more narrow while the ventral horns are broad
15
Q
What is the function of the dorsal horns?
A
interneurons that receive sensory input
16
Q
What is the function of the ventral horns?
A
cell bodies of somatic motor neurons
17
Q
What is the function of the lateral horns and their location?
A
cell bodies of autonomic (sympathetic) motor neurons. They are located specifically in the thoracic and superior lumbar segments
18
Q
Which horns are the largest in cervical and lumbar regions which innervate limbs?
A
ventral horns
19
Q
What type of nerve is the spinal nerve? Why?
A
Mixed because it consists of both sensory and motor neurons
20
Q
What type of neurons are in the dorsal region of the spinal cord?
A
sensory neurons
21
Q
What type of neurons are in the ventral region of the spinal cord?
A
motor neurons
22
Q
Which region of the spinal cord contains axons of sensory neurons?
A
dorsal root
23
Q
What is the dorsal root ganglion?
A
cells bodies of sensory neurons
24
Q
What is the ventral root?
A
axons of motor neurons (both somatic and autonomic)
25
What is white matter?
myelinated and nonmyelinated nerve fibers organized into tracts. Each tracts composed of axons with similar destinations and fxns
26
What are the three directions that white matter can run ?
1. Ascending: up to higher centers (sensory inputs)
2. Descending: from brain to cord within cord lower levels (motor outputs)
3. Transverse: from one side of the cord to others
27
How is white matter divided?
into 3 columns on each side (dorsal, lateral, and ventral funiculi)
28
What are the four neuronal pathway generalizations?
relay, symmetry, decussation and somatotpy
29
What is the purpose of the ascending pathway?
conducts sensory impulses upward to bran involving three successive neurons
30
What are first-order neurons?
sensory neuron by conducting impulses from cutaneous receptors and proprioreceptors and located cell body ganglion
31
What are second-order neuron?
an interneuron located in the cell body on dorsal horn of spinal cord and mendullary nuclei. Axon extend to thalamus and cerebellum
32
What are third-order neurons?
interneurons located in the cell body of the thalamus. Axon extends to primary somatosensory cortex
33
Which order is not located in the cerebellum?
third-order neurons
34
What are the three main ascending pathways?
dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway, Spinothalamic and Spinocerebellar
35
Which transmit sensory inputs that are difficult to localize precisely (pain, temperature, and crude touch)?
Spinothalamic pathway
36
Which ascending pathway conveys information about muscle or tendon stretch to cerebellum?
spinocerebellar pathway
37
Which ascending pathway transmits sensory inputs that can be localized precisely on body surface?
dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway
38
What are descending pathways?
efferent impulses from brain to spinal cord
39
what are the two types of descending pathways? Motor pathways?
direct and indirect pathways . Upper motor and lower motor neurons
40
Describe upper motor neurons?
pyramidal cells in primary motor cortex found in subcortical motor nuclei
41
Describe lower motor neurons?
ventral horn motor neurons
42
Describe direct pathways
axons of pyramidal cells from corticospinal tracts that cross over at decussation of pyramids in the medulla oblongata. Synapses with ventral horn motor neurons
43
What does the Direct Pathway regulate?
fast, fine, skilled movements
44
Describe the indirect pathways?
all motor pathways except pyramidal pathways
45
What does the Indirect Pathway regulate?
axial muscles maintaining balance and posture, muscles controlling coarse limb movements, and head, neck, and eye movements that follow objects in visual field
46
What spinal cord trauma occurs when there is loss of motor function?
paralysis
47
What is referred to as abnormal sensations in the spinal cord?
paresthesias
48
What spinal cord trauma results in impulses to not reach muscles caused by severe damage to ventral root and horn cells?
flaccid paralysis
49
How does spastic paralysis differ from flaccid paralysis?
Damage to upper motor neurons of primary motor cortex, no voluntary control, muscles stimulated by reflex activity
50
Define: transection in cervical region both upper and lower limbs affected
quadriplegia
51
What is paraplegia?
Transection between T1 and L1 only lower limbs affected
52
How does the effectors in the SMS and ANS differ?
SMS: skeletal muscles
ANS: cardiac and smooth muscles and glands
53
True or false. The ANS has a single neuron from CNS to effector organs with thick and heavily myelinated axons
False. This describes SMS. The ANS has 2-neuron chain from CNS to effector organs with thin and light myelinated or unmyelinated axons
54
What are the two-neurons involved in the ANS?
Preganglionic neuron (cell bod in CNS) and postganglionic neuron (cell body in autonomic ganglion outside CNS)
55
Which to two neurons in the ANS pathway n thin and lightly myelinated? Which is unmyelinated?
Preganglionic neurons are thin and lighty myelinated and postganglionic neurons are thin and unmyelinated
56
What is released from all neurons in the SNS?
ACh
57
What does the preganglonic axon release opposed to the postganglionic axon in the ANS?
The preganglionic axon releases ACh while the postganglionic release NE
58
Which nervous systems are excitatory or inhibitory?
SMS are alway excitatory while the ANS can either be excitatory or inhibitory
59
What are the two divisions in the ANS?
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
60
Which division of the ANS mobilizing body during activity?
Sympathetic
61
Which division of the ANS promotes maintenance functions?
Parasympathetic
62
Define Dual innervation
both divisions generally serve same organs, but cause opposite effects
63
What is the Parasympaathetic division known as?
"Rest and digest" system
64
What is the Sympathetic division known as?
"Fight-or-flight"
65
What are the effects of the sympathetic division?
dilated pupils and bronchioles, increased heart rate, bp, and blood glucose levels, sweating, and shunting of blood from skin and digestive viscera to heart and skeletal muscles
66
What are the effects of the parasymapthetic division?
constricted pupils, glandular secretion, increased digestive tract motility, and smooth muscle activity leading to elimination of feces and urine
67
Where is the origin of the sympathetic division?
thoracic and lumbar region of the spinal cord
68
Where is the origin of the parasympathetic division of the ANS?
brain stem and sacral region of the spinal cord
69
Which division of the ANS has long preganglionic and short postganglionic neurons? Location site?
Parasymapthetic which are located in or near the visceral effector
70
Which division of the ANS has short preganglionic fibers and long postganglionic fibers? Location site?
Sympathetic division which is located near the spinal cord
71
Due to the location of the Paraysympathetic neurons, where are the cell bodies centrally located?
craniosacral
72
Due to the location of the Sympathetic neurons, where are the cell bodies centrally located?
thoracolmbar region
73
List the four cranial nerves that are preganglionic fibers in the Parasympathetic division?
oculomotor, vagus, facial, and glossopharyngeal
74
In the symapthetic division where arw the cell bodies of postganglionc neurons located?
sympathetic trunk ganglia, collateral ganglia, adrenal medulla
75
In the sympathetic trunk, which effectors does the sympathetic trunk supply?
Supply effectors in the body wall, limbs, head, and thoracic cavity
76
Which effectors do collateral ganglia supply?
Supply abdominal and pelvic organs
77
What is the adrenal medulla referred to as regarding sympathetic ganglion?
the "misplaced" sympathetic ganglion
78
In the Sympathetic division what is the pathway of preganglionic axons?
ventral root, spinal nerve, ramus communicans and sympathetic trunk
79
What are the three things a preganglionic axon can do when entering the sympathetic trunk?
1. Synapse in a sympathetic trunk ganglion
2. Synapse in a collateral ganglion
3. Synapse in a adrenal medulla
80
What is the pathway for postganglionic axons serving effector in body wall and limbs?
postganglionic axons-> rami communicates -> spinal nerves -> effectors (sweat glands, arrector pili muscles and blood vessels
81
What is the pathway for axons serving effectors in head and thoracic cavity?
postganglionic axons -> sympathetic nerves -> effectors ( heart and lungs)
82
What is the pathway for axons serving effectors in the abdominal cavity?
preganglionic axon-> sympathetic trunk-> collateral ganglia (stomach, liver, intestines reproductive organs, kidneys, and urinary bladder)
83
What is the pathway fro axons serving the effectors in the adrenal medulla?
preganglionic axons-> sympathetic trunk-> splanchic nerves-> adrenal medulla (nonepinephrine and epinephrine)
84
What regulates most ANS effectors?
Visceral reflex arcs
85
What are the 5 steps in the visceral reflexes?
Sensory receptor in viscera-> visceral sensory neuron-> integration center-> efferent pathway-> visceral effector
86
Which type of fibers release ACh?
Cholinergic fibers
87
Which type of fibers release norepinephrine?
Adrenergic fibers
88
What are the two major classes of adrenergic receptors?
Alpha (1&2) and Beta (1,2&3)
89
True or False. Effect of NE or NNE binding may be excitatory or inhibitory? State which are which if true
True. Receptors n the cardiac muscles are excitatory and receptors in the bronchioles are inhibitory
90
What type effect does albuterol have?
Albuterol binds to 2 receptors without activating receptors; 2 activators
91
Propranolo is a drug that blocks 1 receptor, what is tis known as?
Beta blockers
92
What is the function of Atropine?
Blocks muscacrinic ACh receptors
93
Describe sympathetic tone
state of partial constriction blood vessels which are maintained by sympathetic fibers
94
Describe parasympathetic tone.
normal background level of parasympathetic activity
95
What is the term that works together to control external genitalia?
Cooperative effects
96
Which organs only have sympathetic innervation?
adrenal medulla, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles and most blood vessels
97
Regarding localization and longevity state the different between the parasympathetic and sympathetic division.
The Parasympathetic division are highly localized lading to short life while the sympathetic division is widespread allowing long lasting effects
98
What allows the sympathetic division to have it specific localization and specificity?
NE is inactivated slowly and NE and NNE are secreted into the blood
99
State the reason for the Parasympathetic division localization and specificity?
ACh is quickly broken down
100
In Autonomic function, what is the role of the spinal cord?
integration center for urination, defecation, erection, ad ejaculation reflexes
101
What is the main ANS integration center?
Hypothalamus
102
What is the role of the brain stem in Autonomic functioning?
exerts most direct influence over autonomic function
103
What is the role of the cerebral cortex in Autonomic functioning?
influences ANS function via connections with limbic system via the hypothalamus
104
Why are special sensory receptors considered to be "special?"
they are confined to the head
105
Of the special senses which are photoreceptor(s)?
vision
106
What type of receptors are taste and smell categorized?
chemoreceptors
107
Which special sense(s) are mechanoreceptors?
hearing ad equilibrum
108
How is the eye protected?
Fat cushion and bony orbit
109
List the accessory structures of the eye.
eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles
110
Which accessory structure is the transparent mucous membrane thereby producing lubricating mucus?
Conjuctiva
111
What is the function of the lacrimal apparatus?
Produce tears (water, mucus, and lysozymes)
112
What is the function of the lateral and medial rectus muscles?
Lateral: move eyes laterally
Medial: moves eye medially
113
If I rotate my left eye to the right and downward which eye muscle is being used?
Inferior rectus muscle
114
If I rotate my left eye to the left and upward which eye muscle is being used?
Inferior oblique muscle
115
Which eye muscle allows my right eye to look upward at the balloon closer to my left eye?
superior rectus muscle
116
Which eye muscle allows my left eye to look downward and laterally?
superior oblique muscle
117
From innermost to outermost, what are the three layers of the eye?
inner layer (retina)-> vascular layer-> fibrous layer
118
What is the fibrous layer composed? Two components?
dense avascular connective tissue
Sclera (white, opaque and posterior) and Cornea (transparent and anterior)
119
The vascular layer is composed of 3 layers, what are they?
choroid, iris, and ciliary body
120
Which component of the vascular layer controls diameter and size of pupil?
the iris
121
What is the purpose of controlling diameter and size of pupil?
This regulated the amount of light entering the eye
122
What are the three components of the ciliary body? State their function
1. Ciliary muscles: control lens shape
2. Ciliary processes: secrete aqueous humor
3. Ciliary zonule: hold lens upright
123
Of the vascular layer, which region is 5/6 of the posterior? State the function of this region
The Choroid are blood vessels that supply ALL layers of the eye and has melanin which absorbs light
124
What are the names of the two layers the retina is composed?
pigmented layer and neural layer
125
Which of the two layers in the retina contains melanin and a single layer of epithelial cells?
pigmented layer
126
What is the pigmented layer of the retina?
a single layer of epithelial cells that contain melanin
127
What is the neural layer of the retina?
three layers of neurons: ganglion cells, bipolar cells, and photoreceptors
128
State the pathway of the signal output.
photoreceptors-> bipolar cells-> ganglion cells
129
State the pathway of light.
ganglion cells-> bipolar cells-> photoreceptors
130
______ is the axons of ganglion cells
Optic nerve
131
What is considered to be the blind spot in the eye?
optic disc
132
Why is there a blind spot?
this is where the optic nerve exits therefore there isn't enough space for photoreceptors
133
Regarding to light state the difference between rods and cones?
cones are for bright light while rods are for dim light
134
In peripheral vision, are rods or cones used?
rods
135
What type of vision are cones used for?
high-acuity color vision
136
Are there more cones or rods?
rods
137
Which two parts of the eye are contain cones?
Macula lutea and fovea centralis
138
Describe the foeva centralis
exclusively cones; bipolar and ganglion cells layers pushed aside; region of greatest visual acuity
139
How is the macula lutea different from the fovea centralis?
it is composed primarily of cones
140
How is eye fluid divided in the eye?
By anterior and posterior segments of the lens
141
Describe the posterior segment
filled with vitreous humor, transmits light, keeps retina layers tightly pressed together, and contributes to intraocular pressure
142
How is the anterior segment divided?
anterior and posterior chamber
143
what two parts is the anterior chamber in between?
between the cornea and iris
144
what two parts is the poster posterior chamber between?
between the iris and lens
145
Describe the segment located in front of the lens.
The anterior segment is filled with aqueous humor
146
Describe the aqueous humor
produced by ciliary body, maintains intraocular pressure therefore supplying nutrients to the lens and cornea
147
If a patient is diagnosed with intraocular pressure in their eye, what is the name of their disease?
Glaucoma
148
Describe the lens
flexible, transparent, biconvex
149
What is the function of the lens?
changes shape to precisely focus light on the retina
150
If you look in the mirror and notice a cloudy and opaque covering over your left eye, what is the correct diagnosis?
cataract
151
Define refraction.
Bending of a light wave when it enters a medium where its speed is different
152
What type of lens diverges light rays?
concave
153
What type of lens converges light rays?
convex
154
Where in the eye is light refracted?
at the cornea and lens
155
How is astigmatism caused?
This is caused by unequal curvatures in different parts of the cornea or lens
156
If your eyeball is too long and distant objects are focused in front of the retina, what type of sight do you have?
Nearsightedness (myopia)
157
How many feet should a normal eye see for far point of vision?
20 ft or 6m
158
If attempting to see the name of the street from a far distance what does your eye do to focus?
ciliary muscles relax, ciliary zonule tightens and the lend flattens
159
If your eyeball is too short and distant objects are focused behind retina, what type of sight do you have?
Farsightedness (Hyperopia)
160
What are the three steps to restore focus in close vision?
accommodation of the lens, constriction of the pupils, and convergence of the eyeballs
161
What is accommodation?
increasing refractory power of lens
162
What occurs during accommodation?
ciliary muscles contract, ciliary zonule loosens, and lens recoils and bulges
163
What is the loss of accommodation with age of close vision?
presbyopia
164
What is emmetropia?
Normal eye vision
