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Anatomy & Physiology > FINAL EXAM A > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM A Flashcards

1
Q

How are anatomy and physiology related?

A

Anatomy is the study of the structure and shape of body and parts; physiology is the study of how body and parts work and function. They work together to move the human body and all of its functions.

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2
Q

List the levels of organization in the human body from smallest to largest.

A
  • Cell
  • Tissue
  • Organs
  • Organ system
  • Organism
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3
Q

What is the importance of homeostasis to survival?

A

Homeostasis is internal stability necessary for functioning; when off balance, survival is harder.

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4
Q

What are the parts of a homeostatic mechanism?

A
  • Negative feedback: Stops the body from making something to reach homeostasis
  • Positive feedback: Occurs during pregnancy and blood clots, tells the body to make more of something that is low
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5
Q

Identify the locations of the major body cavities.

A
  • Cephalic cavity: brain
  • Spinal cavity: spine
  • Thoracic cavity
  • Abdominal cavity
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6
Q

List the organs located in the cranial cavity.

A

Brain

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7
Q

List the organs located in the spinal cavity.

A

Spine

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8
Q

List the organs located in the thoracic cavity.

A
  • Heart
  • Lungs
  • Esophagus
  • Trachea
  • Thymus
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9
Q

List the organs located in the abdominal cavity.

A
  • Stomach
  • Liver
  • Gallbladder
  • Pancreas
  • Intestines
  • Spleen
  • Kidneys
  • Adrenal glands
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10
Q

List the organs located in the pelvic cavity.

A
  • Bladder
  • Reproductive organs (ovaries, testes)
  • Rectum
  • Part of large intestine
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11
Q

What are the major organ systems?

A
  • Integumentary
  • Skeletal
  • Muscular
  • Nervous
  • Endocrine
  • Cardiovascular
  • Lymphatic & Immune
  • Respiratory
  • Digestive
  • Urinary
  • Reproductive
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12
Q

What is the function of the integumentary system?

A

Covers body, regulates temperature, protects deep tissue

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13
Q

What is the function of the skeletal system?

A

Protects supporting organs, framework, makes blood

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14
Q

What is the function of the muscular system?

A

Facial expressions, posture, produces heat

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15
Q

What is the function of the nervous system?

A

Fast control system, responds to internal and external stimuli

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16
Q

What is the function of the endocrine system?

A

Secretes hormones from glands

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17
Q

What is the function of the cardiovascular system?

A

Pumps blood, moves oxygen and carbon dioxide

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18
Q

What is the function of the lymphatic & immune system?

A

Protection from pathogens/viruses/bacteria

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19
Q

What is the function of the respiratory system?

A

Exchanges gases with the external environment, supplies oxygen, removes carbon dioxide

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20
Q

What is the function of the digestive system?

A

Breaks down food, eliminates unneeded solids

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21
Q

What is the function of the urinary system?

A

Eliminates nitrogenous waste, water regulation, electrolyte regulation

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22
Q

What is the function of the reproductive system?

A

Produces offspring

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23
Q

Define anatomical position.

A

Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward

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24
Q

What are the four major tissue types?

A
  • Connective
  • Muscular
  • Epithelial
  • Nervous
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25
Q

What is a function of connective tissue?

A

Connects everything

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26
Q

What is a function of muscular tissue?

A

Moves skeletons, heartbeat, moves food in the digestive system

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27
Q

What is a function of epithelial tissue?

A

Lining of internal pathways

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28
Q

What is a function of nervous tissue?

A

Conducts electrical impulses

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29
Q

Describe the characteristics of simple squamous epithelium.

A

Single layer, flat, thin, permeable, specialized for rapid diffusion

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30
Q

Describe the characteristics of simple cuboidal epithelium.

A

Single layer, cube-shaped, involved in secretion and absorption

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31
Q

Describe the characteristics of simple columnar epithelium.

A

Single layer, tall cells, specialized for absorption, secretion, and protection

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32
Q

What type of epithelium is thick and protective?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

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33
Q

What type of epithelium is generally 2 layers and very rare?

A

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

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34
Q

What type of epithelium has misaligned nuclei?

A

Pseudostratified epithelium

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35
Q

What type of epithelium varies in appearance and is layered?

A

Transitional epithelium

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36
Q

How are glands classified?

A
  • Exocrine: Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine
  • Endocrine: Hormones secreted into the blood
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37
Q

What is the main function of bone connective tissue?

A

Supports and protects the body, facilitates movement

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38
Q

What is the function of loose connective tissue?

A

Binds skin, fills space between muscles

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39
Q

What is the function of dense connective tissue?

A

Provides strength in one or multiple directions

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40
Q

What is the function of cartilage?

A

Provides flexible support and reduces friction between bones

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41
Q

What is the function of blood connective tissue?

A

Transports nutrients, gases, and waste

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42
Q

Distinguish between the three types of muscle tissues.

A
  • Smooth: Involuntary, no striations, spindle shaped
  • Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, found in heart
  • Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, connects bones together
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43
Q

What are the general characteristics of nervous tissue?

A
  • Neurons: Pass along/create electrical impulses, cannot regenerate
  • Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons, can regenerate
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44
Q

Describe the structure of a long bone.

A
  • Spongy bone: Lattice of trabeculae, filled with red marrow
  • Compact bone: Arranged in osteons with haversian canals
  • Medullary cavity: Contains marrow, blood vessels
  • Epiphysis: Ends of long bone, spongy bone
  • Diaphysis: Long shaft of bone
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45
Q

List the major functions of bones.

A
  • Structure
  • Protection
  • Storage
  • Manufacture
  • Movement
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46
Q

Identify the types of bone fractures.

A
  • Transverse
  • Open/compound
  • Oblique
  • Comminuted
  • Segmental
  • Oblique displaced
  • Avulsion
  • Spiral
  • Greenstick
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47
Q

What distinguishes the axial skeleton from the appendicular skeleton?

A
  • Axial: Skull, vertebrae, thoracic cage
  • Appendicular: Upper limbs, lower limbs
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48
Q

What are the major features of the skull bones?

A

[List of major skull bones and features]

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49
Q

What are the major features of the vertebral column?

A

[Number, types, features, locations of vertebrae]

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50
Q

What are the major features of the thoracic cage?

A

[Ribs, sternum features]

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51
Q

What are the major features of the pectoral girdle?

A

[Clavicles, scapulae features]

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52
Q

What are the major features of the upper limb?

A

[Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges features]

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53
Q

What are the major features of the pelvic girdle?

A

[Pelvis and coxal bones features]

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54
Q

What are the major features of the lower limb?

A

[Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges features]

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55
Q

Compare male and female skeletons, particularly the pelvis.

A
  • Female: Larger and wider pubic arch
  • Male: Smaller, more narrow pubic arch
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56
Q

Classify joints according to the type of tissue binding the bone.

A
  • Fibrous: Immovable/slightly movable
  • Cartilaginous: Immovable/slightly movable
  • Synovial: Freely moving
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57
Q

List six types of synovial joints.

A
  • Pivot
  • Hinge
  • Ball & Socket
  • Saddle
  • Condylar
  • Gliding
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58
Q

What movements do hinge joints allow?

A

Flexion and extension

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59
Q

What movements do ball & socket joints allow?

A

Rotation, abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, circumduction

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60
Q

What example illustrates how skeletal muscles produce movements at joints?

A

When you extend your knee, the quadriceps femoris muscle contracts

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61
Q

Identify the structures that make up a skeletal muscle.

A
  • Fascicle
  • Muscle fiber
  • Myofibril
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62
Q

What is the action of the patellar ligament?

A

Knee extension (straightening the leg)

63
Q

List the various outcomes of muscle actions.

A
  • Joint movement
  • Postural control
  • Heat production
64
Q

Identify the structures that make up a skeletal muscle.

A
  • Fascicle
  • Muscle fiber
  • Myofibril
  • Myofilaments
65
Q

What is a fascicle in skeletal muscle?

A

Bundles of fibers covered by perimysium to reduce friction

66
Q

What is a muscle fiber?

A

Long, thin bundle of myofibrils covered by endomysium and sarcoplasmic reticulum

67
Q

What are myofibrils?

A

Thread-like mixture of two myofilaments, structured into sarcomeres

68
Q

What are the two types of myofilaments?

A
  • Actin
  • Myosin
69
Q

What are the major parts of a skeletal muscle fiber?

A
  • Fascicle
  • Muscle fiber
  • Myofibril
  • Myofilaments
70
Q

What is the initial event in skeletal muscle fiber contraction?

A

ATP becomes ADP + P releasing energy to activate myosin heads

71
Q

What occurs during the power stroke in muscle contraction?

A

Energy in the myosin pulls actin towards the M line, ADP + P released

72
Q

What is the role of ATP in muscle fiber contraction?

A

ATP attaches to myosin, releasing the cross bridge

73
Q

What distinguishes fast and slow fiber types?

74
Q

Fill in the blank: Muscle contractions generate force that moves bones at joints, allowing for actions such as _______.

A

[walking, lifting, and gesturing]

75
Q

What is the difference between isotonic and isometric contractions?

76
Q

What are the characteristics of skeletal muscle?

A
  • Cylindrical
  • Striated
  • Multinucleated
  • Voluntary controlled
77
Q

What are the characteristics of smooth muscle?

A
  • Arranged in uniform layers
  • Non-striated
  • Involuntary controlled
  • Slow contractions
78
Q

What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle?

A
  • Branched
  • Striated
  • Multinucleated
  • Involuntary controlled
79
Q

Define the terms prime mover, synergist, and antagonist.

A
  • Prime mover: muscle doing the action
  • Synergist: additional muscle helping the mover
  • Antagonist: opposing muscle in the action
80
Q

Identify the two major groups of nervous system organs.

A
  • Brain
  • Spinal cord
81
Q

What are the divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System?

A
  • Sensory Division (Afferent)
  • Motor Division (Efferent)
82
Q

What is the function of astrocytes in the CNS?

A

Support and anchor neurons to surrounding capillaries

83
Q

What is the function of microglia?

A

Provides immune response to neurons in CNS, phagocytes

84
Q

What do ependymal cells do?

A

Secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

85
Q

What is the function of the sodium-potassium pump?

A

Restores voltage to resting state

86
Q

What are the main functions of the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Involuntary muscle control
  • Sympathetic responses
  • Parasympathetic responses
87
Q

Describe the structure of a neuron.

A
  • Dendrites
  • Axon
  • Cell Body (Soma)
  • Nodes of Ranvier
88
Q

What do Schwann cells provide in the PNS?

A

Myelin insulation to neurons

89
Q

What is the role of the receptor in a reflex arc?

A

Receives the stimulus

90
Q

What is the role of the effector in a reflex arc?

A

Stimulated muscle that performs the reflex

91
Q

List the coverings of the brain and spinal cord.

A
  • Dura mater
  • Arachnoid layer
  • Pia mater
92
Q

What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Maintain blood-brain barrier, protect the brain

93
Q

What are the five kinds of receptors?

A
  • Chemoreceptors
  • Mechanoreceptors
  • Photoreceptors
  • Thermoreceptors
  • Pain receptors
94
Q

What are the general senses?

A
  • Touch
  • Temperature
  • Pressure
  • Pain
95
Q

What are the special senses?

A
  • Taste
  • Smell
  • Vision
  • Hearing
  • Balance
96
Q

Where are olfactory receptors located?

A

Olfactory bulb in the upper nasal cavity

97
Q

What is the role of the tympanic membrane?

A

Passes vibrations from outer ear to ossicles

98
Q

Where are receptors for hearing located?

A

Stereocilia (cilia fibers)

99
Q

What is the difference between static and dynamic equilibrium?

100
Q

What is the function of the tympanic membrane?

A

Passes vibrations from outer ear to ossicles

101
Q

What does the malleus do?

A

Vibrates against eardrum and passes vibration to incus

102
Q

What role does the incus play in hearing?

A

Continues to amplify sound waves and vibrate stapes

103
Q

What is the function of the stapes?

A

Transmits vibrations to the inner ear

104
Q

How do vibrations reach the brain?

A

Vibrations are received by McKenna receptors and pass to the brain via auditory nerve

105
Q

What is contained within the cochlea?

A

Periolence fluid in Oregon of Corti

106
Q

Define static equilibrium.

A

Maculae help keep head upright at rest

107
Q

Define dynamic equilibrium.

A

Otoliths slide on gel-like membrane, making receptor cells in maculae move

108
Q

What is the sclera?

A

White of eye, fibrous connective tissue that protects and shapes eye

109
Q

What is the function of the choroid?

A

Pigmented, vascular membrane that includes the iris and pupil

110
Q

What does the retina contain?

A

Photoreceptors that turn light into impulses

111
Q

What is the role of the aqueous humor?

A

Nourishes cornea (in front of lens)

112
Q

What is the function of vitreous humor?

A

Jelly-like substance that refracts light (behind lens)

113
Q

What is the lens’s role in the eye?

A

Directs light towards the retina and undergoes accommodation

114
Q

What does the pupil do?

A

Regulates light entering the eye

115
Q

What is the function of the iris?

A

Regulates light

116
Q

What do ciliary muscles do?

A

Bend lens and flatten it

117
Q

What is the fovea?

A

Tiny pit that only contains cones; point of sharpest image

118
Q

What does the optic nerve do?

A

Carries impulse to the brain, creates blind spot where it meets retina

119
Q

What are rods and where are they located?

A

All over retina; provide vision in low light and are extremely sensitive

120
Q

What are cones and where are they concentrated?

A

Concentrated in center of retina; detect colors and are less sensitive

121
Q

What are the primary refractors of light in the eye?

A

Cornea and lens

122
Q

Fill in the blank: The visual nerve pathway is __________.

A

Retina → optic nerve → optic chiasm → visual cortex

123
Q

What are the two types of secretions in the endocrine system?

A

*Steroid hormones
*Non-steroid hormones

124
Q

How does the nervous system respond compared to the endocrine system?

A

Nervous system responds quickly through electrical impulses; endocrine system responds slowly with hormones

125
Q

Distinguish between endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine secretions.

A

Endocrine: affects distant cells; Autocrine: affects the same cell; Paracrine: affects nearby cells

126
Q

How do steroid hormones affect target cells?

A

Can pass through the target cell’s membrane, altering action of the cell

127
Q

How do non-steroid hormones affect target cells?

A

Not able to pass through cell membranes; bind at receptor

128
Q

What is the function of negative feedback mechanisms in hormonal secretions?

A

Stops or lowers the input

129
Q

How does the nervous system control secretion of hormones?

130
Q

Where is the anterior pituitary located?

A

In front of the posterior pituitary

131
Q

List the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary and their functions.

A

*TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) - stimulates the thyroid
*ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) - stimulates the adrenal glands
*GH (Growth Hormone) - stimulates growth (bone/muscle)
*MSH (Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone) - stimulates melanocytes (melanin)
*Prolactin - stimulates milk production
*Gonadotrophs - stimulates sex hormones (testes, ovaries)

132
Q

Where is the posterior pituitary located?

A

Behind the anterior pituitary

133
Q

List the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary and their functions.

A

*AH (Antidiuretic hormone) - increases water retention in the kidneys, decreases urination
*Oxytocin - stimulates breast milk and labor contractions

134
Q

How is the secretion of each pituitary hormone regulated?

A

All regulated by the hypothalamus

135
Q

Where is the thyroid gland located?

A

In the neck

136
Q

List the hormones secreted by the thyroid gland and their functions.

A

*Calcitonin - decreases calcium levels in the blood
*T3 & T4 (Thyroxine & Triiodothyronine) - regulate metabolism, body temperature, oxygen levels, blood pressure

137
Q

How is the secretion of each thyroid hormone regulated?

A

Hypothalamus and negative feedback loop

138
Q

Where are the parathyroid glands located?

A

On the posterior part of the thyroid

139
Q

What hormone do the parathyroid glands secrete and what is its function?

A

PTH (Parathyroid hormone) - increases calcium levels in blood

140
Q

How is the secretion of parathyroid hormone regulated?

A

Hypothalamus

141
Q

Where are the adrenal glands located?

A

Above the kidneys

142
Q

List the hormones secreted by the adrenal glands and their functions.

A

*Glucocorticoid - regulate levels to recover (return back to level)
*Epinephrine & norepinephrine - regulate fight/flight, blood flow, heart rate, oxygen levels, body temperature

143
Q

How is the secretion of adrenal hormones regulated?

A

Hypothalamus

144
Q

Where is the pancreas located?

A

In the abdominal cavity

145
Q

List the hormones secreted by the pancreas and their functions.

A

*Insulin - lowers blood glucose levels
*Glucagon - increases blood glucose levels

146
Q

How is the secretion of each pancreatic hormone regulated?

A

*Insulin - beta cells, negative feedback
*Glucagon - alpha cells, negative feedback

147
Q

Where are the pineal and thymus glands located?

A

*Pineal: posterior half of the brain
*Thymus: upper chest behind the breastbone

148
Q

List the hormones secreted by the pineal, thymus, and other endocrine glands.

A

*Pineal: melatonin
*Thymus: thymopoietin, thymic factor, thymosin
*Ovaries: estrogen, progesterone
*Testes: testosterone

149
Q

What is the function of melatonin?

A

Creates sleep/wake cycle (circadian rhythm)

150
Q

What is the function of thymopoietin, thymic factor, and thymosin?

A

Development of immune system

151
Q

What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete?

A

PSH (pituitary stimulating hormone)

152
Q

What is the function of PSH?

A

Control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands; regulates sleep/wake cycle, hunger, thirst

153
Q

What is the function of estrogen and progesterone?

A

*Estrogen - maturing of sex organs, secondary sex characteristic
*Progesterone - control of menstruation, contributes to breast development

154
Q

How is the secretion of hormones from the pineal, thymus, and other endocrine glands regulated?

A

Negative feedback loop

Anatomy & Physiology (12 decks)

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