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final exam Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the 7 key characteristics of life?

A 
Grows
Reproduces
Responds to its environment 
Maintains homeostasis 
Evolves 
Has DNA
Composed of cells
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2
Q

All life came from a single source (or a small number of sources)

A

Unity of Life

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3
Q

Organsims adapted to their environments over many generations

A

Diversity of Life

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4
Q

What are the hierarchal levels of life?

A

Atoms>molecules>organelles>cells>tissues>organs>organ systems>organsims

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5
Q
  1. All living things are made up of cells
  2. The cell is a structural and functional unit of all living things
  3. All cells come pre-existing cells
  4. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division
  5. All energy flow of life occurs within cells
  6. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
A

Cell Theory

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6
Q

Has a nucleus, large cells or multicellular, DNA in strands

A

Eukaryotic Cells

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7
Q

No nucleus, small cells, circular DNA

A

Prokaryotic Cells

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8
Q

One organism

A

Individual

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9
Q

All the living organisms of one species in a particular area

A

Population

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10
Q

All species in an area (plants, animals, decomposers…)

A

Community

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11
Q

Living and non-living components of an area

A

Ecosystem

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12
Q

All life on Earth in all the places that life exists

A

Biosphere

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13
Q

New properties arise at each level of organization

A

Emergent Properties

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14
Q

The water molecules stick to each other, water has surface tension

A

Cohesion

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15
Q

Water sticks to certain other materials, wall of plant veins

A

Adhesion

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16
Q

Water loving

A

Hydrophilic

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17
Q

Water hating

A

Hydrophobic

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18
Q

What are the 4 main classes of organic molecules?

A

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

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19
Q

What is the monomer of carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharide

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20
Q

What is the polymer(s) of carbohydrates?

A

Disaccharides (2), polysaccharides (3+)

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21
Q

What is the monomer of lipids

A

1 glycerol+3 fatty acids

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22
Q

What is the polymer of lipids?

A

Triglyceride

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23
Q

What is the monomer of proteins?

A

Amino acid

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24
Q

What is the polymer of proteins?

A

Peptides

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25
Q

What is the monomer of nucleic acids?

A

Nucleotide

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26
Q

What is the polymer of nucleic acids?

A

Nucleic Acid

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27
Q

Created by removing water and getting a larger polymer

A

Dehydration Synthesis

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28
Q

Break with water

A

Hydrolysis

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29
Q

The order of amino acids

A

Primary Structure

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30
Q

Stabilized by hydrogen bonds

A

Secondary Structure

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31
Q

The overall shape of a protein molecule

A

Tertiary Structure

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32
Q

Occurs in proteins formed of 2 or more peptide subunits

A

Quaternary Structure

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33
Q

The total amount of energy in the universe is constant

  • Energy cannot be created or destroyed
  • Energy can only be changed from one form to another
  • Plants convert light energy to chemical energy via photosynthesis
A

First Law of Thermodynamics

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34
Q

The entropy (degree of disorder) is always increasing

  • Energy is lost when it is transformed from one form to another
  • Energy is generally lost as heat
A

Second Law of Thermodynamics

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35
Q

Releases energy, products low in potential energy

A

Exergonic Reactions

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36
Q

Absorbs energy, products rich in potential energy

A

Endergonic Reactions

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37
Q

What is the relationship between enzymes and activation energy?

A

Enzymes lower activation energy

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38
Q

What denatures an enzyme?

A

Changes in pH, temperature, and salt concentration

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39
Q

Is an enzyme used up during a reaction?

A

No

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40
Q
  • Showed that killed pathogenic bacteria could transfer virulence to non-pathogenic bacteria
  • This newly acquired trait of pathogenicity was inherited by all of the descendants of the transformed bacteria
A

Frederick Griffith

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41
Q

Identified the transforming substance as DNA

A

Avery, McCarty, MacLoed

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42
Q

Concluded that the DNA injected by the phage must be the molecule carrying the genetic information that makes the cells produce new viral DNA and proteins
-Provided powerful evidence that nucleic acids, rather than proteins, is the hereditary information

A

Hershey and Chase

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43
Q

Chargaff’s Rules, A=T, C=G

A

Erwin Chargaff

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44
Q
  • Made an X-ray diffraction photograph of DNA which showed the helical structure
  • Concluded that the sugar-phosphate backbone was on the outside
  • Died in 1958
A

Rosalind Franklin

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45
Q
  • Determined base pairing
  • Determined the two strands of DNA were involved–double helix
  • Determined the strands ran in opposite directions–antiparallel
A

Watson and Crick

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46
Q

Breaks hydrogen bonds between complementary pairs (unzips DNA)

A

Helicase

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47
Q

Adds a RNA primer to initiate replication

A

Primase

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48
Q

Adds DNA molecules to pre-existing chain from 5’ to 3’ on the growing chain

A

DNA Polymerase

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49
Q

Adds nucleotides after RNA primer

A

DNA Polymerase III

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50
Q

Removes RNA primer

A

DNA Polymerase I

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51
Q

Joins Okazaki fragments

A

DNA Ligase

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52
Q

Helps with the untwisting of DNA

A

Topoisomerase

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53
Q

Binds to the single strands to keep them from rejoining

A

Single Strand Binding Protein

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54
Q

The new complementary DNA strand synthesized continuously along the template strand

A

Leading Strand

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55
Q

A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments

A

Lagging Strand

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56
Q

Pries two strands of DNA apart and joins together RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template

A

RNA polymerase

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57
Q

DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches

A

Promoter

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58
Q

DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches

A

Terminator

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59
Q

What is produced from transcription?

A

mRNA

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60
Q

What is the ‘one gene-one enzyme’ hypothesis?

A

Each mutated gene must normally dictate the production of one enzyme

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61
Q

How does transcription vary in prokaryotes vs eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes produce mRNA, eukaryotes produce pre-mRNA

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62
Q

mRNA removed before transcription

A

Introns

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63
Q

Remaining mRNA to be used during translation

A

Exons

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64
Q

The process of remaining introns in the nucleus

A

RNA Splicing

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65
Q

Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins

  • Composed of snRNA and proteins
  • Recognize introns
A

snRNPs

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66
Q

A ribozyme, a catalyst that is a RNA molecule, not an enzyme

A

snRNA

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67
Q

Consists of snRNP subunits

-Bind to pre-mRNA at multiple sites along the intron, snip the intron, and join the exons

A

Spliceosome

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68
Q

Messenger RNA, carries the codon from the DNA to the ribosome

A

mRNA

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69
Q

Transfer RNA, brings amino acids to the ribosome

A

tRNA

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70
Q

Ribosomal RNA, components of ribosomes, most abundant RNA

A

rRNA

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71
Q

Structural components of spliceosomes which remove introns from eukaryotic pre-mRNAs

A

snRNA

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72
Q

Joins an amino acid to tRNA

A

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

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73
Q

The messenger RNA nucleotide triplets

A

Codon

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74
Q

Base pairs with the complementary codon on the mRNA

A

Anticodon

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75
Q

Signals the start of translation

A

Start Codon

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76
Q

Signals the end of translation

A

Stop Codon

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77
Q

tRNA with the polypeptide moved to the p-site, empty tRNA moved to the e-site and released

A

Translocation

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78
Q

Contains a mRNA binding site

A

Small Subunit

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79
Q

Lines up the tRNA

A

Large Subunit

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80
Q

Holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain

A

P-site

81
Q

Holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid

A

A-site

82
Q

Discharges tRNA

A

E-site

83
Q

Change in single nucleotide

A

Point Mutation

84
Q

Point mutation in the third base pair of a codon that does not change the amino acid

A

Silent Mutation

85
Q

Point mutation that does change the amino acid

A

Missense Mutation

86
Q

Point mutation that replaces an amino acid with a stop codon

A

Nonsense Mutation

87
Q

Additions of one or more nucleotides in a gene

A

Insertion

88
Q

Deleting of one or more nucleotides in a gene

A

Deletion

89
Q

Insertions or deletions of one or two nucleotides resulting in a shift in the reading frame

A

Frameshift Mutation

90
Q

Physical or chemical agents that cause mutations

-e.g. UV light, X-rays, most carcinogens

A

Mutagen

91
Q

Transcription is usually turned on, but can be inhibited

  • Repressor normally unbound
  • Corepressor needed in order for the repressor to bind to the operator
A

Repressible Operon

92
Q

Transcription is off, but can be stimulated

  • Repressor normally bound to the operator
  • Inducer required to inactivate the repressor so transcription can occur
A

Inducible Operon

93
Q

The switch on the DNA that allows transcription to occur

A

Operator

94
Q

Binds to the operator and blocks the attachment to the promoter

A

Repressor

95
Q

Codes for repressors

A

Regulatory Gene

96
Q

Binds to a repressor protein and changes the protein’s shape, allowing it to bind to the operator and switch an operon off

A

Corepressor

97
Q

Binds to a repressor and changes the repressor’s shape so it cannot bind to an operator

A

Inducer

98
Q

A protein that binds to other proteins to mark them for degradation

A

Ubiquitin

99
Q

Recognize the ubiquitin-tagged proteins and break them down

A

Proteasomes

100
Q
  • Makes copies of DNA
  • Can copy the DNA when the original DNA source is limited or impure
  • Selective of specific sequences
  • After 30 cycles, a billion copies of target sequence are present
A

PCR

101
Q

The DNA is inserted into its plasmid

A

Bacteria Cloning

102
Q

Differentiated cells can be grown into complete new plants

A

Plant Cloning

103
Q

Use mammary cells as DNA source

A

Animal Cloning

104
Q

Using fluorescent dyes to see where genes are expressed

A

In situ hybridization

105
Q

Examines a large number of genes from a small tissue sample

  • Examines mRNA
  • Detects presence and intensity
  • Screens 1000s of genes at a time
  • Requires prior knowledge of the genome
A

Microarrays

106
Q

Unspecialized cells that can reproduce itself indefinitely and also differentiate into specialized cells

A

Stem Cells

107
Q

Introducing genes into an afflicted individual for therapeutic purposes

A

Gene Therapy

108
Q

The study of whole sets of genes and their interactions

A

Genomics

109
Q

Why do viruses ‘lead a borrowed life’?

A

They need a host cell to replicate

110
Q

Culminates in the death of the host cell and release of new viruses

A

Lytic Cycle

111
Q

Viral DNA is replicated without killing the host cell

A

Lysogenic Cycle

112
Q

What is the advantage of a membrane coat?

A

Protection

113
Q

What causes a virus to become pandemic?

A

A virus spread to more than 1 continent

114
Q

How can we prevent viral diseases?

A

Vaccines

115
Q

Regulates flow of molecules into and out of the cell

A

Cell Membrane

116
Q
  • Contains genetic material (DNA)

- Components: nucleolus, nuclear membrane, chromatin

A

Nucleus

117
Q

Protein synthesis

A

Ribosomes

118
Q

Covered with ribosomes, functions in protein synthesis

A

Rough ER

119
Q

Functions in lipid metabolism, synthesis of cholesterol and steroid hormones

A

Smooth ER

120
Q
  • Modifies proteins and lipids received from the ER
  • Sorts proteins and lipids for final destinations
  • Packages and exports proteins and lipids in vesicles
  • In plants, it manufactures polysaccharides
A

Golgi Apparatus

121
Q

Controlled intracellular digestion of macromolecules, has a pH of 5, only in animal cells

A

Lysosomes

122
Q

A membrane sac in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell

A

Vesicle

123
Q

Pumps excess water from cell, only in plant cells

A

Vacuole

124
Q

Energy factories, site of cellular respiration, has its own DNA

A

Mitochondria

125
Q

In plants, where photosynthesis occurs

A

Chloroplasts

126
Q

Produces hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct, breaks down fatty acids, alcohol

A

Peroxisomes

127
Q

Serves a variety of mechanical, transport, and signaling functioning

A

Cytoskeleton

128
Q 
Composed of cellulose, only in plants 
Functions:
1. Protects the cell
2. Provides shape
3. Prevents uptake of excess water
4. Holds the plant up against gravity
A

Cell Wall

129
Q

What cell organelles are unique to plants?

A

Cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata

130
Q

What cell organelles are unique to animals?

A

Lysosomes, centrioles, cell junctions

131
Q

Evolutionary origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts

A

Endosymbiont Theory

132
Q

What organs are in the endomembrane system (6)?

A

ER, nuclear envelope, golgi, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles

133
Q

Proteins may move laterally, they don’t flip flop

-If correct, proteins from two different cells will mix

A

Fluid Mosaic Model

134
Q

What are the functions of the cell membrane? (6)

A 
Transport
Enzyme activity
Signal transduction
Cell-cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
135
Q

The diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane

A

Osmosis

136
Q

Movement of molecules down their concentration gradient

A

Diffusion

137
Q

The movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration

A

Active Transport

138
Q

Proteins that carry substances from one side of the membrane to the other

A

Carrier Protein

139
Q

Facilitate the transport of substances across a cell membrane

A

Channel Protein

140
Q

Higher solute concentration, water flows out of the cell and it shrinks, then will shrivel

A

Hypertonic

141
Q

Lower solute concentration, water flows into the cell and it expands, cell will swell and may burst

A

Hypotonic

142
Q

Equal tonicity

A

Isotonic

143
Q

One unit of condensed chromatin

A

Chromatid

144
Q

A cellular structure that has 1 DNA molecule and associated proteins

A

Chromsome

145
Q

Pair of separate DNA strands that carry genes for the same traits

A

Homologous pair

146
Q

Two copies of a duplicated chromosome attached at the centromere end

A

Sister Chromatid

147
Q

The region on each sister chromatid where it is most closely attached to the other chromatid

A

Centromere

148
Q

Cell has homologous pair of chromosomes

A

Diploid

149
Q

Cell has single chromatids or sister chromatids

A

Haploid

150
Q

Microtubule organizing center

A

Centrosome

151
Q

A cable composed of actin proteins in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells

A

Microfilament

152
Q

Composed of tubulin proteins

A

Microtubule

153
Q

Proteins associated with DNA at the centromere

A

Kinetochore

154
Q

Normal cell operations and cell growth

A

G1

155
Q

Preparation for cell division

A

G2

156
Q

Replication of DNA

A

S

157
Q

Chromatin condense becoming sister chromatids, nucleus dissolves

A

Prophase

158
Q

Sister chromatids line up in the middle of the cell

A

Metaphase

159
Q

Sister chromatids separate

A

Anaphase

160
Q

The cells start to separate (in animals, a cleavage furrow forms)

A

Telophase

161
Q

How does cell division proceed in prokaryotes?

A

Binary fission

162
Q

Duplicate homologous chromosomes pair and exchange segments

A

Prophase I

163
Q

Homologous pairs line up

A

Metaphase I

164
Q

Homologous pairs separate

A

Anaphase I

165
Q

Two haploid cells form, each chromosome still has 2 sister chromatids

A

Telophase I

166
Q

A spindle apparatus forms

A

Prophase II

167
Q

Sister chromatids line up

A

Metaphase II

168
Q

Sister chromatids separate, the chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes

A

Anaphase II

169
Q

Nuclei form, the chromosomes begin decondensing and cytokinesis occurs

A

Telophase II

170
Q

Always expressed, capital letter

A

Dominant Trait

171
Q

Only expressed when the dominant is not present, lowercase letter

A

Recessive Trait

172
Q

Only on the X chromosome

A

X-Linked Traits

173
Q

Both traits expressed

A

Co-Dominance

174
Q

Blending of traits

A

Incomplete Dominance

175
Q

An allele that is lethal in the homozygous condition

A

Homozygous Lethal

176
Q

How do cells communicate when they are close in contact with each other?

A

Cell junctions, cell-cell recognition

177
Q

How do cells communicate over short distances?

A

Paracine signaling, synaptic signaling

178
Q

A secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator into the extracellular fluid

A

Paracine Signaling

179
Q

A gap between adjacent nerve cells

A

Synapse

180
Q

How do cells communicate over long distances?

A

Relies on the bloodstream to transport molecules

181
Q

What are the 3 stages of cell signaling?

A

Reception, transduction, response

182
Q

A signal molecule binds to a receptor protein

A

Reception

183
Q

Receptor protein is changed

A

Transduction

184
Q

Specific response could be activating an enzyme, rearranging the cytoskeleton, or activating specific genes in the nucleus

A

Response

185
Q 
Glucose is oxidized into pyruvate
-Occurs in all cells 
-Anaerobic process
-Occurs in the cytosol 
Net reaction:
-Glucose--> 2 pyruvate 
-Yields 2 ATP+ 2 NADH
A

Glycolysis

186
Q
  • Pyruvate leaves the cytosol and enters the mitochondria matrix via active transport
  • Pyruvate is converted into Acetyl CoA
  • Net reaction:
  • 2 pyruvate +2 CoA–> 2 Acetyl CoA+2 CO2
  • Yields 2 NADH
A

Pyruvate Oxidation

187
Q

Produces virtually all the carbon dioxide resulting from cellular respiration
Net reaction:
-2 Acetyl CoA–> 4 carbon dioxide
-Yields 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2

A

Citric Acid Cycle

188
Q

NADH and FADH2 release their electrons and H+
-Electrons power the pumping of H+ against a concentration gradient
-H+ pumped from the matrix to the intermediate space
Net reaction: H+ gradient

A

Electron Transport Chain

189
Q

H+ concentration gradient used to make ATP

-Yields 26-28 ATP total

A

Chemiosmosis

190
Q

Transmembrane enzyme that makes ATP

A

ATP synthase

191
Q

What is the relationship between the Laws of Thermodynamics and photosynthesis?

A

Energy flows but nutrients cycle– energy is not created nor destroyed, just transformed

192
Q

What organisms photosynthesize?

A

Plants

193
Q

What is the equation for photosynthesis?

A

energy+6CO2+6H20–>C6H12O6+6O2

194
Q

The O in carbon dioxide, does it become the O in glucose or O2?

A

Both

195
Q

The O in H2O, does it become the ) in glucose or O2?

A

O2

196
Q
  • Used: water
  • Produced: O2, ATP, NADPH
  • Location: thylakoid
A

Light Dependent Reactions

197
Q
  • Used: CO2, ATP, NADPH
  • Produced: glucose
  • Location: stroma
A

Light Independent Reactions

198
Q 
3 stages:
1. Carbon fixation
2. Reduction
3. Regeneration of CO2 acceptor 
Net reaction:
-3 CO2-->3 GCP
-Uses ATP and 6 NADPH
A

Calvin Cycle

Biology 1113 (8 decks)

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