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Bio 100 > final exam > Flashcards

final exam Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

cell cycle phases

A

(G1, S phase, G2) - interphase
& mitotic phase

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2
Q

g1

A

(interphase) initial growth phase, cell accumulates materials for DNA replication

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3
Q

s phase

A

(interphase) DNA replication occurs

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4
Q

g2

A

(interphase) cell continues to grow and prepares for mitosis

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5
Q

mitotic phase

A

cell divides, mitosis produces two identical cells

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6
Q

interphase

A

G1, s-phase, G2

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7
Q

prophase

A

nuclear envelope breaks down to access chromosomes

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8
Q

metaphase

A

chromosomes align at the metaphase plate

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9
Q

anaphase

A

sister chromatids separate

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10
Q

telophase

A

nuclear envelope rebuilds around sister chromatids

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11
Q

cytokinesis

A

division of the cytoplasm following mitosis or meiosis

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12
Q

prokaryotic genome

A

single, circular DNA molecule

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13
Q

genome

A

complete set of DNA within the nucleus (eukaryotes) or single molecule (prokaryotes)

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14
Q

centrosome

A

organizes mitotic spindle for cell division

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15
Q

meiosis

A

creates genetic variation and reduces chromosome number by half in gametes, preparing for fertilization, meiosis results in four genetically diverse cells

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16
Q

gametes

A

reproductive cells, like sperm and egg

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17
Q

cytokinesis

A

division of the cytoplasm following mitosis or meiosis
human diploid cells contain 46 chromosomes: haploid gametes contain 23

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18
Q

crossing over

A

exchange of genetic material in prophase 1. Genetic material exchange, creating recombinants

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19
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

chromosomes with the same length and gene types

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20
Q

fertilization

A

fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote

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21
Q

genetic variation

A

due to meiosis and fertilization

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22
Q

G2 checkpoint

A

checks for complete, undamaged DNA before mitosis

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23
Q

proto-oncogenes

A

regulate cell growth, mutations can lead to uncontrolled cell division (cancer)

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24
Q

p53

A

tumor suppressor that halts the cell cycle for DNA repair or induces apoptosis in damaged cells, helping prevent cancer

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25
Q

mutations in p53 and RB1

A

prevent the cell from stopping division despite damage, often seen in cancer cells

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26
Q

genetics

A

the study of heredity and variation in living organisms

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27
Q

gregor mendel

A

known as the father of genetics, mendel’s experiments with pea plants established foundational principles in genetics. His works form the basis of mendelian genetics, a framework for understanding inheritance patterns

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28
Q

p (parental generation)

A

true-breeding plants with distinct traits (e.g, purple flowers vs white flowers)

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29
Q

F1 generation

A

offspring of the P generation, all expressing the dominant trait (purple flowers)

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30
Q

F2 generation

A

offspring of the F1 generation, showing a 3:1 ration of dominant to recessive traits

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31
Q

mendel’s observations

A

traits are inherited as discrete units (genes), not blended
dominant traits mask recessive traits in heterozygous individuals

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32
Q

phenotype

A

observable traits of an organism

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33
Q

genotype

A

the genetic makeup that determines the phenotype

34
Q

homozygous

A

two identical alleles (PP or pp)

35
Q

heterozygous

A

two different alleles (Pp)

36
Q

Law of dominance

A

in heterozygous organisms, one allele (dominant) can mask the expression of another (recessive)

37
Q

law of segregation

A

during gamete formation, alleles for each gene segregate, ensuring offspring inherit one allele from each parent
can be visualized using punnett squares to predict genotype and phenotype ratios

38
Q

law of independent assortment

A

genes for different traits are inherited independently if they are located on different chromosomes
seed color (yellow/green) and seed shape (round/wrinkled) are inherited independently, resulting in a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio in a dihybrid cross

39
Q

incomplete dominance

A

heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes
snapdragon flowers where red (RR) x white (WW) = pink (RW)

40
Q

codominance

A

both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote
Human ABO blood group system, individuals with IAIB genotype have type AB blood

41
Q

multiple alleles

A

a gene with more than two alleles within a population
ABO blood types involve three alleles (IA, IB and i)

42
Q

epistasis

A

interaction between genes where one gene masks or modifies the effect of another
coat color in labrador retrievers, where a gene for pigment deposition (E/e) determines wheter the color genes (B/b) are expressed

43
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

traits influenced by multiple genes, resulting in a wide range of phenotypes
human skin color with more dominant alleles = darker skin and more recessive alleles = lighter skin

44
Q

DNA

A

carriers genetic information

45
Q

DNA structure

A

double helix made of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base)
Base pairs: A-T and G-C

46
Q

Eukaryotes

A

DNA wrapped around histones in chromosomes

47
Q

prokaryotes

A

circular DNA supercoiled in the nucleoid

48
Q

Basics of DNA replication

A

DNA replication is the process by which a cell copies its DNA before cell division
purpose: ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genetic material

49
Q

semiconservative replication

A

each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand (template stand) and one newly synthesized strand

50
Q

replication origin

A

the process begins at specific DNA sequences called origins of replication
prokaryotes: single origin (circular DNA)
eukaryotes: multiple origins (linear DNA)

51
Q

Steps of DNA replication

A

1) Initiation: unwinding the DNA
2) elongation
3) Termination

52
Q

helicase

A

enzyme that unwinds double helix, creating two single strands

53
Q

single-strand binding proteins (SSBs)

A

stabilize the unwound DNA, preventing it from re-annealing

54
Q

topoisomerase

A

relieves tension in the DNA helix ahead of the replication fork

55
Q

replication fork

A

y-shaped structure where DNA is unwound and replication occurs

56
Q

primase

A

adds RNA primers to provide a starting point for DNA synthesis

57
Q

DNA polymerase

A

adds nucleotides to the 3’ end of the primer, synthesizing new DNA

57
Q

leading strand

A

synthesized continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction toward the replication fork

57
Q

lagging strand

A

synthesized discontinuously as short fragments (okazaki fragments) in the 5’ to 3’ direction away from the fork

58
Q

sliding clamp

A

holds DNA polymerase in place to increase efficiency

59
Q

primer removal

A

RNA primers are replaced with DNA by a different DNA polymerase

60
Q

ligation

A

DNA ligase seals gaps between okazaki fragments on the lagging strand to form a continuous strand

61
Q

telomeres

A

(special DNA feature in eukaryotes)
repeated sequences at chromosome ends that protect against loss of genetic information during replication

62
Q

telomerase

A

(special DNA feature in eukaryotes)
enzyme that extends telomeres in germ cells, stem cells and some cancer cells, preventing chromosome shortening

63
Q

significance of DNA replication

A

accuracy: DNA replication is highly accurate due to proofreading by DNA polymerase
mutations: errors that escape proofreading can lead to genetic mutations, affecting cell function

64
Q

biotechnology

A

involves using living organisms or biological systems to develop products and technologies for various fields, including medicine, agriculture and industry

65
Q

vaccines

A

genetically engineered vaccines like the HPV vaccine (protects against cervical cancer)
mRNA vaccines (eg, COVID-19 vaccines) use synthetic genetic material to trigger immunity

66
Q

antibiotics

A

naturally produced by microorganisms (penicillin by fungi)
genetic engineering has increased yield and efficiency

67
Q

Hormones and therapeutics

A

insulin - recombinant DNA technology produces human insulin in bacteria for diabetes treatment
human growth hormone (HGH) - used for growth disorders, produced using genetically modified bacteria

68
Q

genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

A

crops engineered for pest resistance (Bt corn), herbicide tolerance (soybeans) and increased nutritional value (golden rice)
reduced reliance on chemical pesticides and fertilizers

69
Q

transgenic animals

A

animals modified to express human proteins (anticoagulants in goat milk)
used for research and pharmaceutical production

70
Q

biofuels

A

genetically engineered microbes produce ethanol or biodiesel

71
Q

bioremediation

A

microbes designed to clean up oil spills or detoxify pollutants

72
Q

DNA and RNA isolation

A

key technique in biotechnology
involves breaking cell membranes, removing proteins, and isolating nucleic acids for analysis or modification

73
Q

gel electrophoresis

A

purpose - separates DNA fragments by size
process - DNA is loaded into a gel, and an electric current pulls smaller fragments faster through the gel matrix

74
Q

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

A

purpose - very quickly amplifies small DNA segments to detectable levels
applications:
forensics - DNA profiling from crime scenes
medical diagnostics - detecting pathogens or genetic mutations
research - need a lot of specific DNA sequence for experiments

75
Q

molecular cloning

A

copies specific DNA segments

76
Q

genetic engineering & recombinant DNA technology

A

combines DNA from different sources to create new functions

77
Q

plasmid vectors

A

small circular DNA used to introduce foreign genes into host cells

78
Q

restriction enzymes

A

molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific sequences, enabling gene insertion

79
Q

gene editing (CRISPR-Cas9)

A

revolutionary technology allows precise cutting and modification of DNA
- treating genetic disorder (sickle cell anemia)
- developing disease-resistant crops

Bio 100 (9 decks)

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