final exam Flashcards
What is stratified epithelium?
many layers of cells packed closely together; tough/good for protection; lines nasal vestibule & oropharynx
What is respiratory epithelium?
very delicate; one layer of pseudostratified epithelium that is made of column-shaped cells with cilia that project from their apical surface; lines nasal conchae, nasopharynx, & trachea
What are goblet cells?
can be found scattered throughout respiratory epithelium; produces mucous
What is the anterior boundary of the nose?
the nose holes which are called the anterior nares
What is the posterior boundary of the nose?
2 holes known as posterior nares that connect to the pharynx
What is the pharyngeal tonsil?
embedded in posterior wall of nasopharynx; lump of lymphatic tissue that filters debris & pathogens from air
What are palatine tonsils?
a pair contained in the oropharynx; they catch pathogens & debris to remove them/filter them out
Where is the opening to the auditory tube?
the nasopharynx
What is inspiration?
to breathe in; increases size of thoracic cavity by contracting intercostal muscles & flattening the diaphragm causing air to rush in
What is expiration?
to breathe out; decreases size of thoracic cavity by contracting intercostal muscles & relaxing the diaphragm causing air to exit
What are the surfaces of the lungs?
costal which faces the ribs & mediastinal which faces the midline of the body
How does gas exchange occur?
through diffusion (with the concentration gradient)
How many lobes are the lungs divided into?
2 on the left & 3 on the right
What is the apex & the base of the lungs?
the apex is the pointed superior part & the base is the flat inferior part that rests on the diaphragm
What is the fauces?
opening in the back of the mouth that leads into the pharynx
What tissue layers make up the entire GI tract (from deep to superficial)?
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, & covering
What is the mucosa of the GI tract?
layer of mucous epithelium that lines the tract; the mucous produced by goblet cells protects this lining; 3 parts = mucous epithelium, lamina propria, & muscularis mucosa
What is the submucosa of the GI tract?
thick layer of connective tissue containing blood vessels, glands, and nerves
What is the submucosal plexus?
formed by the nerves of the submucosa; controls the muscularis mucosa
What is the muscularis of the GI tract?
smooth muscle layers that contract to push food through the lumen of the GI tract; this is called peristalsis
What is the myenteric plexus?
embedded in the muscularis nerves; it is controlled by the ANS & allows for peristalsis; sympathetic stimulation slows this activity & parasympathetic stimulation speeds it up
What is the covering of the GI tract?
the outermost layer; 2 types which are serosa & adventitia
What secretory cells are contained in the gastric pits?
chief cells, parietal cells, & enteroendocrine cells
What are chief cells?
secrete pepsinogen (an inactive molecule) that is converted into an active form called pepsin which begins protein digestion
What are parietal cells?
secrete hydrochloric acid which keeps stomach pH at approximately 1.5; secrete intrinsic factor which promotes absorption of vitamin B12
What are enteroendocrine cells?
produce a variety of hormones such as ghrelin & gastrin
Which organ absorbs nutrients?
small intestine
What is ghrelin?
hormone that stimulates hunger
What is gastrin?
hormone secreted as the stomach enlarges & stomach pH increases; it stimulates chief cells & parietal cells; increases peristalsis activity
What are villi?
finger-like projections that cover each plicae circularis fold; each one contains an arteriole, a venule, & a lacteal
What is the arteriole of the villi?
a small artery that delivers oxygenated blood to enterocytes to keep them alive
What is the venule of the villi?
a small vein that absorbs nutrients from the lumen & picks up CO2 from enterocytes (inside this vein is nutrient rich, O2 poor blood)
What is the lacteal of the villi?
a small lymph vessel that absorbs specific fats
What does the liver do with the “dirty” blood that enters through the portal vein?
filters out cell fragments, pieces of bacteria, drugs such as tylenol, & alcohol to detoxify the blood
What does the liver manufacture?
cholesterol; this is essential in cell membranes
What does the liver do to ammonia that comes from protein digestion?
it converts it into a less toxic form that is then removed from the blood by the kidneys
What is bilirubin?
a pigment that the liver removes from the hemoglobin of old, worn out red blood cells; it is yellow/brown colored molecule that is disposed of in feces
What is albumin?
a protein made by the liver that regulates the osmotic pressure of blood to prevent swelling
What is bile?
a green liquid made by the liver (secreted by hepatocytes) that breaks big pieces of fat into smaller ones that are more easily digested by enzymes
What is glycogen?
an excess sugar that is given short-term storage in the liver & will be converted to fat if it is not used quickly
What is net filtration rate?
10 mmHg; calculated by glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure - (blood colloidal osmotic pressure + capsular hydrostatic pressure)
What are the protective layers of the kidney (deep to superficial)?
renal capsule, adipose capsule, & renal fascia
What is the renal capsule of the kidney?
attaches to the kidney surface; very delicate & thin; holds parts of the kidney together to prevent infection
What is the adipose capsule of the kidney?
layer of fat that cushions the kidney
What is the renal fascia of the kidney?
tough superficial connective tissue covering that binds kidney in place
What is glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure?
force of blood in glomerulus pushing filtrate INTO capsular space; varies with overall body blood pressure but is usually 60 mmHg
What is capsular hydrostatic pressure?
force of Bowman’s capsule pushing some filtrate BACK INTO GLOMERULUS; usually 18 mmHg
What is blood colloidal osmotic pressure?
attraction of some filtrate so that it travels BACK INTO GLOMERULUS; usually 32 mmHg
What is the flow of urine?
renal papilla ⤏ minor calyx ⤏ major calyx ⤏ renal pelvis ⤏ out of kidney through ureter ⤏ urinary bladder ⤏ exits through urethra
What is the flow of filtrate?
capsular space ⤏ PCT ⤏ Henle’s loop ⤏ DCT ⤏ collecting tubule ⤏ renal papilla
When is ANP released?
cells in the wall of the heart’s right atrium can become stretched due to high blood pressure, causing them to they release a hormone called atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
What does ANP do?
travels to the kidneys & causes a reduction in Na+ reabsorption from filtrate into the blood of the vasa recta, causing Na+ to stay in filtrate & become part of urine, causing a reduction in blood volume & pressure
What are the components of a nephron?
glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, PCT, Henle’s loop, DCT, & collecting tubule
When is renin released?
special cells in the wall of the DCT near glomerulus & in the wall of the afferent arteriole release an enzyme called renin in response to low blood pressure
What does renin do?
travels through the blood & converts lots of molecules eventually forming a hormone called angiotensin II
What are juxtaglomerular cells?
the special cells that release renin; they constantly monitor filtrate pressure in DCT & blood pressure in the afferent arteriole
What does angiotensin II do?
constricts “peripheral blood flow” & efferent arterioles even more than usual, stimulates thirst to increase blood volume & pressure, & triggers adrenal glands to release aldosterone
What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?
it enhances the reabsorption of water; it makes the DCT & collecting tubules more permeable to water so that it exits the tubules & enters the vasa recta
What is tubular reabsorption?
keeps the good/useful stuff
What is tubular secretion?
gets rid of bad/excess stuff
What is the urethra?
a tube that extends from the inferior part of the bladder to the outside of the body
What is the ureter?
12 inch long tube that carries urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder
What is the prostate?
approximately 30 gland units wrapped by a fibrous capsule; donut shaped encircling the urethra
What is the purpose of the prostate’s secretions?
it enhances sperm motility to make them move straighter and faster
What are the bulbourethral glands?
a pair of pea-sized glands embedded in the inferior body wall to the left & right of the urethra
What do the bulbourethral glands secrete?
mucous that coats the urethra to protect sperm from urine residue & raises vaginal pH
What are the seminal vesicles?
a pair of honeycomb shaped glands located on the posterior inferior surface of the bladder
What do the seminal vesicles secrete?
carbohydrates that the sperm’s mitochondria use for ATP generation
Is vaginal pH acidic/low or alkaline/high?
acidic/low
Are sperm cells diploid or haploid?
diploid with 23 chromosomes
Where does fertilization occur?
fallopian tubes
When does ovulation occur?
halfway through cycle (day 14 of 28 day cycle)
What are characteristics of daughter cells in mitosis & meiosis?
mitosis = diploid & meiosis = haploid
What are seminiferous tubules?
each lobule is filled with 1-3; tiny coiled tubes where sperm is produced; approximately 0.5 miles of these tubes per testis
What is spermatogenesis?
sperm creation; triggered by the combination of testosterone & ABP; occurs in seminiferous tubules
What is spermiogenesis?
a process by which excess cytoplasm is enzymatically removed by Sertoli nurse cells to transform spermatids into mature sperm
What are gonads?
unisex term for the organs that produce sperm or egg (testes/ovaries)
What are gametes?
unisex term for sperm/egg
When are FSH & LH released in males?
at the same time after GnRH travels to the anterior part of the pituitary gland
When are FSH & LH released in females?
separately; FSH is released after GnRH travels to the brain’s anterior pituitary gland; LH is released when high estrogen levels trigger the brain’s anterior pituitary gland which is called the “burst of LH” & occurs on day 14 of a 28-day cycle
How are cardiac muscle cells autorhythmic?
they can contract spontaneously without electrical impulses; when these cells touch each other they contract as a unit
What are megakaryocytes?
big cells that fragment into pieces called platelets which are very small, have no nucleus & minimal organelles, so they only live 5-7 days
What are erythrocytes?
red blood cells; biconcave disk shaped cells (this shape is perfect for hemoglobin to fit inside) with no nucleus once mature
What is pulmonary heart failure?
occurs when the right side doesn’t fully eject blood which causes blood to back up into the right atrium & inferior vena cava
What happens as a result of pulmonary heart failure?
swelling of the extremities, especially feet, ankles, and legs; can cause serous fluid to leak from the skin (weeping heart failure)
What is a syncytium?
the units in which cardiac muscle cells are arranged; this arrangement allows the heart to contract with a slight twist to properly pump blood
What is the flow of blood through the heart in pulmonary circulation?
deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, & coronary sinus opening ⤏ tricuspid valve ⤏ right ventricle ⤏ pulmonary semilunar valve ⤏ travels to lungs through pulmonary artery trunk
What is systemic heart failure?
occurs when the left side doesn’t fully eject blood which causes blood to back up into the left atrium & 4 pulmonary veins
What happens as a result of systemic heart failure?
swelling of the alveolar capillaries which causes difficulty breathing
What is the flow of blood through the heart in systemic circulation?
newly oxygenated blood from lungs enters the left atrium through 4 pulmonary veins ⤏ bicuspid valve ⤏ left ventricle ⤏ aortic semilunar valve ⤏ travels to body systems through the aorta
What are arteries?
vessels that carry blood away from the heart to an organ, tissue, or body system
What are veins?
vessels that return blood to the heart from an organ, tissue, or body region
What are capillaries?
small vessels that may be microscopic; they allow blood to perfuse tissues; 3 types which are continuous, fenestrated, & sinusoidal
What are continuous capillaries?
the endothelium has cells close together with tiny holes in between that only allow water, ions, salts, & sugars to “leak” through; can be found in skeletal muscle
What are fenestrated capillaries?
the endothelium has medium-sized holes between cells; good for absorption, secretion, & filtration; can be found in glomerulus
What are sinusoidal capillaries?
the endothelium has large holes between cells making blood cells able to pass into or out of; can be found in red bone marrow
What is cardiac output (CO)?
calculated by heart rate • stroke volume; the amount of blood ejected by each ventricle per minute; typically 5250 mL/min or 5.25 L/min
How is sympathetic stimulation an extrinsic factor on CO?
it increases heart rate & contraction force through cardiac nerves in the sympathetic division supplying the heart; occurs through fear, excitement, fever, exercise, & most pain
What is epinephrine?
hormone from the adrenal glands that is released in severe sympathetic stimulation; its presence greatly increases cardiac output
How do high blood calcium levels affect CO?
causes an increase in CO because it increases cross bridge formation in the cardiac muscle
How does depression/grief affect CO?
decreases cardiac output
How do cold/freezing temperatures affect CO?
cause a decrease in cardiac output as body tries (unsuccessfully) to divert blood to our “vital” organs
How does acidic blood pH affect CO?
acidic blood pH occurs if the brain’s respiratory centers do not respond to this acidity (because of the presence of drugs like opioids); this pH decreases cardiac output which can lead to death
How do high blood potassium levels affect CO?
alter the waves of depolarization in heart’s conduction system which decreases cardiac output
How does the vagus nerve affect CO?
in severe abdominopelvic pain (kidney stones, appendicitis, etc.), the pain travels to the brain through the sensory part of vagus nerve & sends impulses back through vagus nerve to the heart causing a decrease in heart rate & stroke volume
How is parasympathetic stimulation an extrinsic factor on CO?
it returns an elevated cardiac output to normal through cranial nerve X = vagus nerve
What is the heart’s conduction system?
groups of neurons that coordinate the contraction of the heart; includes SA node, AV node, AV bundle of His, bundle branches, & Purkinje fibers
What is the sinoatrial (SA) node?
a lump of nervous tissue in the right atrial wall slightly inferior to the opening of the superior vena cava
What does the SA node do?
sets basic heart rate at approximately 75 bpm which can be adjusted as needed; causes atria to contract at the same time
What is the atrioventricular (AV) node?
a lump of nervous tissue in the interatrial septum near the tricuspid valve; sends impulses to AV bundle of His
What is the atrioventricular (AV) bundle of His?
strand of nervous tissue in the superior part of interventricular septum; branches to form the bundle branches
What are the bundle branches?
strands of nervous tissue in the inferior portion of the interventricular septum; branches into Purkinje fibers
What are the Purkinje fibers?
tiny branches that extend into lateral walls of the heart from apex upwards to ensure that contraction of the heart also occurs from apex upwards
What are atrioventricular heart valves?
the bi & tri cuspid valves; separate atria & ventricles; made of soft flaps called cusps that grow out of the endocardium
What are semilunar heart valves?
rigid valves that pop open due to force of blood as its ejected from ventricles; prevents leakage from “great vessels” (PAT & aorta) into ventricles
What are chordae tendinae?
“heart strings” that anchor the cusps into the ventricles; they attach to papillary muscles
What are papillary muscles?
cone-shaped extensions from the ventricle wall to prevent the valve’s cusps from extending into the atria which prevents leakage of blood from ventricle into atrium
What layers protect the heart?
fibrous pericardium & serous pericardium (parietal/visceral)
What is the fibrous pericardium?
tough, dense, fibrous connective tissue; protects heart & holds it in place
What is the serous pericardium?
thin, soft, delicate serous membrane folded into parietal & visceral surfaces
What is the parietal pericardium?
deeper surface; fuses to the inside of the fibrous pericardium
What is the visceral pericardium?
also called epicardium; anchors directly to the heart wall; can also be categorized as a layer in the wall of the heart
What is the pericardial cavity?
space separating the parietal & visceral pericardium; filled with 15 mL of pericardial fluid which serves as a lubricant to reduce friction
What is the myocardium?
muscle layer made of cardiac muscle cells; each cell is branched & contains 1 central nucleus & they are interwoven to provide strength & prevent this layer from tearing
What is the endocardium?
deepest layer lining the inside of the heart; made of endothelium which is a type of epithelium where the cells are flat & scale-like (squamous) to allow blood to zip through
