Final Comprehensive Flashcards
1
Q
how are organisms organized from cell to organ system
A
chemical level-cellular level-tissue level-organ level-organ system
2
Q
what characteristics are needed for maintaining life
A
a. movement
b. responsiveness
c. growth
d. reproduction
e. respiration
f. digestion
g. metabolism
h. excretion
3
Q
what is homeostasis(Fig.1.4)
A
“unchanging”
- describes body’s ability to maintain internal conditions even if external is changing
ex. body temp, blood pressure, heart activities - homeostasis is maintained via communication through electrical impulses through the nervous system or blood borne hormones in the blood(endocrine)
4
Q
positive feedback loop
A
the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated
- positive because the change that results proceeds in the same direction as initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range
ex. blood clotting, increasing contractions
5
Q
negative feedback loop
A
The output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces intensity.
this mechanism causes the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its ideal value
ex. regulation of body temperature
6
Q
isomer
A
each of two or more compounds with the same formula but a different arrangement of atoms in the molecule and different properties.
7
Q
synthesis combination reaction
A
molecules combine to form larger more complex molecules
-involves bond formation
A+B=AB anabolic activities
8
Q
decomposition
A
bonds are broken in larger molecules resulting in smaller, less complex molecules
AB= A+B , catabolic activites
ex glycogen is broken down to release glucose units
9
Q
exchange or displacement
A
involve both synthesis and decomposition - bonds are both made and broken
ex. ATP transfers terminal phosphate group to glucose to from glucose-phosphate-breaking and bond and forming another
10
Q
what factors affect rate of chemical reactions and how
A
- temperature-increase temp , higher kinetic energy, faster reaction
- concentration- more particles, more reactions
- particle size- the smaller the particles, faster the reaction
- catalysts-substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without them being altered or part of the product
11
Q
Acid
A
are electrolytes, they will break up in water and conduct electricity,
- sour taste
- dissolve many metals
- dissolve in water and release hydrogen ions(protons) and anions
12
Q
salt
A
ionic compound that have cations other than H+ and anions other than hydroxyl ion
Ex. NaCl, build teeth.conduct nerve signals, calcium phosphate
13
Q
base
A
- electrolyte that take up H+
- bitter, slippery
- proton acceptors-take H+ ions in detectible amounts
- dissolve in water and release hydroxyl ions (-OH & cation)
14
Q
how do buffers work?
A
substances that are going to minimize change in pH , they do this by accepting H+ when too many, and donates H+ when it is too few - they can act like an acid or a base
15
Q
what properties does water have that makes it vital to life
A
a. high heat capacity
b. high heat of vaporization
c. polar solvent
d. reactivity
e. cushioning
16
Q
carbohydrates
A
CARBS- cellular fuel as sugars, storage as starches
- monosaccharides, ex. glucose
- disaccharides, ex. sucrose, lactose
- polyasaccharides, ex. starch, cellulose, glycogen
17
Q
lipids
A
LIPIDS-energy storage, protection, hormones (steroids)
- triglycerides-fats or oils; saturated or unsaturated
- phospholipids- cell membrane
- steroids- ex. cholesterol in membranes, sex hormones
18
Q
proteins
A
PROTEINS- structure and function (hormones, enzymes, antibodies
- fibrous vs. globular(functional)
- structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quarternary
19
Q
how do enzymes work
A
- help speed up reactions that normally take very slowly-catalysts
- can consist entirely of protein or protein and & a cofactor(coenzyme) -metal or organic molcule
- lowers the activition anergy needed to start a reaction
20
Q
what causes proteins to denature
A
- proteins unfold-sensitive to environment, pH drops, temperature rises, loose 3D shape,
- H bonds in proteins can be broken by extremes in temp or pH, causing the protein to unfold
21
Q
Nucleic Acids
A
make up DNA and RNA; genetic material or cell
DNA base pairs: Adenine+Thymine, Guanine +Cytosine
RNA base pairs: Adenine+Uracil, Guanine + Cytosine
22
Q
protein primary structure
A
linear sequence of amino acids
23
Q
protein secondary structure
A
alpha helix or beta pleated sheets
24
Q
protein tertiary structure
A
alpha helices beta sheets fold on one another in compact like ball-globular
25
protein quarternay structure
2 or more tertiary structures together
26
fibrous proteins
- long, strand-like, water insoluble
| ex. collagen & keratin-structure proteins found in skin
27
globular proteins
- compact, sherical, water soluble, used for functional purposes
ex. antibodies, hormones, shape pf protein determines function
28
mitochondria
power plants of the cell, job is to harvest chemical energy from food, use this energy to create ATP, higher activity more mitochondria
29
ribosomes
made up of proteins and RNAs, site of protein synthesis
- can be free floating in cytoplasm
- can be attached to Rough ER
30
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
contains ribosomes that manufacture proteins secreted from cells
-makes components of membranes
31
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
SMOOTH ER- contains enzymes on catalysing many reactions- NO role in protein synthesis
1. lipid metabolism, cholesterol synthesis
2. synthesis of steroid-based hormones-like sex hormones
3. absorb, synthesize & transport fats
4. detox certain drugs, pesticides and carcinogens
5. breakdown the stored glycogen to form free glucose(in liver cells especially)
32
Golgi apparatus
GOLGI APPARATUS- Traffic director for cellular proteins
- consists of stacked and flattened membraneous sacs, shaped like hollowed dinner plates
- the GA receives transport vesicles from the Rough ER, modifies them(ex. + phosphate group), sorts them and sends them out the other side
33
Lysosome
LYSOSOMES- contains digestive enzymes, it is their job to break things down
34
Cytoskeleton
CYTOSKELETON- cell skeleton; network of rods running through the cytosol providing support and machinery to generate cell movements
-contains microtubule, intermediate filaments and microfilaments
35
cellular extension- flagella
long projections formed by centrioles; propel an entire cell
ex. sperm
36
cellular extension-cilia
- whiplike motile cellular extensions occuring in great numbers on some cell surfaces
ex. respiratory tract, pseudostratified columnar
37
cellular extension- microvilli
- tiny finger-like extensions of plasma membrane projecting from a free cell surface
ex. intestine, kidney, higher surface area for more absorption
38
nucleus
control center of the cells, contains genetic info
| -made up of nuclear membrane, nucleoli & chromatin
39
Passive transport
- simple diffusion
- facilitated diffusion-(carrier mediated and channel mediated)
- osmosis
40
simple diffusion
nonpolar and lipid soluble substances diffuse directly through the lipid layer
41
diffusion
where molecules or ions move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration-down their concentration gradient
42
facilitated diffusion(carriers& channels)
- glucose, amino acids & ions, go straight across or with help of carrier protein, passive transport
- CARRIERS are proteins that transport large or polar molecules
- CHANNELS are aqueous filled proteins that allow ions or water to pass through (leaky, chemically or electrically gated)
43
osmosis
diffusion of a solvent, often water, through a selectively permeable membrane, something liquidy, particles can't go through
-water uses Aquaporins- water tends to move from areas of higher water lower solute to areas of lower water & higher solute, until equilibrium occurs
44
tonicity
ability of cell to change its shape by altering internal water volume
45
isotonic
concentration is the same inside and outside of cell-normal- no net movement
46
hypertonic
-move solutes outside, water will leave the cell-cell shrivels shrinks -CRENATE
47
hypotonic
-more solutes in the inside than outside, water will move into the cell; cell will eventually burst-LYSIS
48
Active transport
-diffusion requires carrier proteins that combine specifically reversibly with transported substances
- requires energy because it is pumping molecules against their concentration gradient
Ex. Ca 2+, Na+, K+
49
Primary active transport
- Ca2+, H+, main one is Na+/K+ pump
- K+ /Na+ pump maintains the higher gradient of K+ inside the cell and Na+ outside the cell- for nerve and muscle cells to function and for fluid balance in normal cells
50
vesicular transport
fluids containing large particles and macromolecules are transported across cellular membranes inside membraneous sacs called "vesicles"
51
Exocytosis
transport out of cell
52
endocytosis
transport into cell
53
transcytosis
movement into, across, then out of cell
54
substance(vesicular) trafficking
transport from one area of the cell to another
55
3 types of endocytosis
1. phagocytosis
2. pinocytosis
3. receptor-mediated endocytosis(& transcytosis)
56
phagocytosis
cellular eating
| ex. WBC engulfs bacteria
57
pinocytosis
cellular drinking, allows sampling of of extracellular fluid
| ex. cells in intestine use this to absorb nutrients
58
receptor-mediated endocytosis & transcytosis
very selective receptors in membrane bind only to certain substances
ex. hormones, enzymes
- flu, diptheria, and Cholera also take this route
59
the resting membrane potential is determined by...
the concentration of K+ potassium ions and by the differential permeability of the membrane to ions
-to maintain proper K+/Na+ balance, active transport of these molecules occurs
60
membrane potential
voltage across the membrane -its electrical potential energy from the separation of oppositely charged particles
61
three layers of skin
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
62
epidermis
-outer layer
| keratinized(hard), stratified squamous epithelium made of four distinct cell types and 4-5 layers
63
dermis
- under epidermis
| - strong, flexible connective tissue, supplied with nerves, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
64
hypodermis
- (superficial fascia)- mostly made of adipose(fat) tissue
| - functions: fat storage, insulation, shock absorption, anchors your skin to muscle underneath
65
Keratinocytes
these produce keratin, gives skin its protective properties
| -dead by the time they reach the surface, they are replaced by mitosis
66
Melanocytes
these make pigment melanin, found deep in epidermis
- this pigment accumulates in membrane bound melanosomes that are ferried up to the keratinocytes
- form pigment shield to protect against UV & sun light
67
Epidermal dendritic cells(Lagerhans cells)
-arise from bone marrow migrate to the epidermis to ingest foreign substances and activate the immune system
68
Tactile (Merkel Cells)
-found at the epidermal/dermal junction; associated with sensory nerve ending and acts as a sensory receptor for touch
69
What are the layers of epidermis?
1. stratum basale
2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum
5. Stratum Corneum
70
which layer is only found in thicker skin in the palms and soles?
Stratum Lucidum (clear layer)
71
What 3 substances determine basic color of skin
1. melanin
2. carotene
3. hemoglobin
72
bluish skin
not enough oxygen
73
redness in skin
emotional, indication of allergy as well
74
pallor- pale skin
emotional stress, indicates anemia or low blood pressure
75
jaundice -yellow
liver disorder
76
bronzing of skin
Addison's disease - not enough steroid hormones or pituatary gland tumor
77
what are the different sweat gland types?
1. Eccrine sweat glands
2. Apocrine sweat glands
3. Ceruminous (wax) glands
4. Mammary glands
78
Eccrine (meocrine) sweat glands
palms feet and forehead
- sweat- hypotonic filtrate of blood released through sweat glands by exocytosis
- 99% water rest is salts, antibodies, metabolic wastes and dermicidin (anti-microbial)
- controlled by ANS mostly to PREVENT OVERHEATING
- heat induced sweat begins on the forehead whereas an emotionally induced cold sweat begins on the palms, soles of feet and armpits
79
Apocrine sweat glands
- 2k in axillary(armpit), anogenital regions
- produces components of sweat + fatty substances & proteins
- when bacteria on the skin decompose those organic molecules - causes BO
- may play role in sexual, also in female menstration
80
Ceruminous (wax) glands
- modified apocrine glands found in the lining of external ear canal, secretion mixes sebum from oil glands to form cerumen aka EAR WAX
81
Mammary glands
- specialized sweat glands that secrete milk
82
what is the importance of sebaceous oil glands?
- the sebaceous glands develop from hair follicles and serve to soften and lubricate the hair and skin. Slow water loss from skin, kill bacteria
83
yellow tinged nails
respirator or thyroid disorder
84
thickening of nail
fungal infection
85
outward concavity of nails
iron deficiency
86
horizontal lines in nails
malnutrition
87
how does the skin protect the body against extreme temperatures?
TOO HIGH temp- nervous system stimulates dermal blood vessels to dilate and sweat glands start secreting. On hot days sweat can account for a loss of up to 12L (3 gallons) -sends more blood to the skin area
TOO LOW temp- dermal blood vessels constrict, causing warm blood to bypass the skin. This allows skin to be the same temp as outside air, sends blood to core of body.
88
What are some of the metabolic functions of the skin?
1. synthesizes Vitamin D precursor in response to sunlight
2. disarm cancer causing chemicals
3. convert harmless chemicals into carcinogens
4. Activate some steroid hormones ex. transform cortisone to hydrocortisone (anti-inflammatory)
89
How does skin act as a blood reservoir for the body?
Dermal vascular supply can hold about 5% of body's total blood volume
- when other body organs need more blood, it can be shunted away from the dermis
90
What are the 3 types of skin cancer?
1. Basal cell carcinoma
2. squamous cell carcinoma
3. melanoma
91
Basal cell carcinoma
- 80% of skin cancers
| - least serious form,on the face
92
Squamous cell carcinoma
- grows quickly on your head and hands
| - can be removed surgically or radiation therapy - the them before they metastesize
93
melanoma
- highly metastic, resistant to chemotherapy, get them from pre-existing moles
treatment: before -surgery and after -immunotherapy
- most serious
94
What germ layers do the epidermis and dermis/hypodermis develop from?
epidermis-ectoderm
| dermis/hypodermis-mesoderm
95
3 types of fibrous joints
1. sutures
2. syndesmosomes
3. gomphoses
96
sutures
"seams" between the bones of the skull, immovable because they protect the brain
- they knit skull bones together but allow for expansion as the brain grows
97
syndesmosomes
- bones connected by ligaments
- found in ankle (between tibia & fibula), between radius and ulna
- amount of movement depends on the length connecting fibers, allowing slight to considerable movement
98
gomphoses
"peg in socket joint"
| -ex. your teeth connected by periodontal ligament
99
2 types of cartilaginous joints
1. synchondroses
| 2. symphyses
100
synchondroses
- made of bar or plate of hyaline cartilage (Cells called chondrocytes)-immovable
ex. ephyseal plate in long bones, in growth plates, closed over in adults, children need it
ex. immovable joint between the costal cartilage of the 1st rib and manubrium of the sternum
101
symphyses
- have articular surface covered with hyaline cartilage which is fused by fibrocartilage
- fibrocartilage allows for some movement, allowing strength and flexibility
ex. intervertebral discs & pubic symphysis of pelvis
102
synovial joints
1. articular cartilage
2. joint (synovial) cavity
3. articular (joint) capsule
4. synovial fluid
5. reinforcing ligaments
6. nerves and blood vessels
103
flexion
- a bending movement, usually along the saggittal plane that decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articulating bones closer together
- ex. bending the head forward on the chest
104
extension
- reverse of flexion and occurs at the same joints-movement along to sagittal plane that increases the angle between articulating bones and typically straightens a flexed limb or body part
- ex. straightening a flexed neck , body trunk, elbow or knee
105
abduction
- "moving away"
- is a movement of a limb away from midline or median plane of body, along the frontal plane
- raising the arm or thigh, spreading the toes or fingers(midline: longest digit)
106
adduction
- "moving toward"
| - opposite of abduction, movement of limb toward the body midline
107
circumduction
moving a limb so it describes a cone in space
- the distal end of a limb moves in a circle, a pitcher winding up to throw a ball
- quickest way to exercise many muscles that move the hip and shoulder ball-and-socket joints
108
rotation
the turning of a bone around its own long axis-only movement allowed between first two cervical vertebrae and common in hip and shoulder joints
- rotation may be directed toward midline or away ex. medial rotation of the the thigh,(making L shape from starting position) the femur's anterior surface moves toward the median plane of the body , lateral rotat. is opposite
109
supination/pronation
Both refer to the movements of the radius around the ulna
supination-"turning backward"- rotating forearm laterally so that palm faces anteriorly or superiorly - in AP the hand is sup. and radius and ulna parallel
pronation-"turning forward"-forearn rotates medially and palm faces posteriorly or inferiorly, radius crosses ulna X- basketball player pronates his or her forearm to dribble the ball
110
dorsiflexion/plantar flexion
- the up and down movements of the foot at the ankle
-dorsiflexion- lifting of the foot so that its superior surface approaches the shin( looks like dolphin dorsal fin)
plantar flexion- depressing the foot (pointing the toes)
111
inversion/ eversion
-special movements of the foot
inversion- the foot turns medially
eversion- the sole faces laterally
112
protraction/retraction
- non-angular anterior and posterior movements in transverse plane
- the mandible is protracted when you jut out your jaw and retracted when you bring it back
113
elevation/ depression
Elevation-lifting a body part superiorly
ex. scapulae are elevated when you shrug your shoulders
depression- moving the elevated part inferiorly
ex. during chewing the mandible is alternately elevated and depressed
114
opposition
- the saddle joint between metacarpal 1 and trapezium allows movement called opposition of the thumb
- the movement is the action taken when you touch your thumb to the tips of the other fingers on the same hand
- tool grasping and manipulating objects
115
6 types of synovial joints(pg. 229)
1. plane
2. hinge
3. pivot
4. condyloid
5. saddle
6. ball and socket joints
116
plane synovial joint
- flat surfaces, gliding movements
| - joints in wrist & ankle, carpal & tarsal joints
117
hinge synovial joint
- cylindrical end of one bone conforms to an indention in the other. Motion is along a single plane.
ex. elbow , knee, phalanges
118
pivot synovial joints
- rounded end of one bone fits in a ring of bone; movement is uniaxial rotation
- movement on top 2 bones of vertebrae axis(shaking your head "no")
119
condyloid( ellipsoidal) synovial joints
- oval surface one one bone fits in an oval depression of the other
- ex. wrist and ankle joints
120
saddle synovial joints
- allow more freedom of movement than condyloid joints; each articular surface has a concave & convex area (the saddle).
ex. carpometacarpal joint of the thumb -allows you to twiddle your thumbs
121
ball and socket synovial joints
- spherical head of one joint fits in the cup-like socket of another
ex. hip and shoulder
122
largest most complex joint in the body
knee
123
most freely moving joint
shoulder(glenohumeral)
124
elbow is a....
stable hinge joint
125
hip is a ....
deep ball and socket
126
how is the nervous system put together?
CNS, PNS-somatic, ANS-sympathetic and parasympathetic
127
What functions do neuroglia perform?
- much more common than neurons:
- support neurons by producing chemicals to help neurons find connections
- promote neuron health and growth
- speed up AP conduction
- found in PNS and CNS
128
multipolar neurons
- major neuron type in CNS-
- 3 or more processes
- 1 axon
- multiple dendrites
129
bipolar neurons
- 2 processes
- one fused dendrite,
- 1 axon(extend on opposite sides of cell body)
- these are rare neurons found in some special sense organs
- ex. some neurons in retina of the eye
130
unipolar neurons
- 1 process
- central and peripheral process, divides into branches
- found in spinal chord, ganglia PNS(sensory neurons) and cranial nerves
131
sensory (afferent) neurons
- taking signals from skin or internal organs to CNS
| - cell bodies are outside the CNS
132
motor (efferent) neurons
-transmit signals from CNS to effectors(muscle and glands)-multi=polar- cell bodies are inside the CNS
133
interneurons (association neurons)
between sensory & motor neurons, most in CNS;
| most multi-polar
134
What 2 factors do the speed of nerve conduction depend on?
1) axon diameter
| 2) degree of myelination
135
How does a synapse work?
1. AP arrives at axon terminal
2. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open, releasing Ca 2+ into the axon terminal
3. Ca2+ causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic cleft
4. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
5. Binding of neurotransmitters open ion channels resulting in GP.
6. Neurotransmitters are taken back up, degraded or diffuse away to end the effect.
136
Excitatory synapse and EPSPs
- binding at these synapses opens chemically gated channels, lets Na+ in and K+ out; net flow of Na+ in -depolarization (inside more +)
- this creates a local graded depolarization called excitatory post synaptic potential EPSP, which sends a current on that can create an AP further down on the axon hillock if it is strong enough to reach threshold and open the voltage gated channels
137
Inhibitory Synapses and IPSPs
(Inhibitory Post synaptic potential) This opens chemically gated channels, lets K+ out or Cl- in. More polarized, more negative, less likely to create an AP
-this creates IPSP which drives the charge farther from threshold and makes it much harder for an AP to occur
138
Postsynaptic potentials
Receptors on the postsynaptic membrane at the chemical synapses often specialized to open ion channels, to convert chemical signals to electrical signals.
Neurotransmitter receptors mediate graded potentials according to the amount of neurotransmitter released and how long it stays in the area
139
spatial summation
if you have enough pre-synaptic neurons stimulating the post synaptic neuron to create AP
140
temporal summation
summation of one or more of pre-synaptic neurons transporting EPSP in rapid succession-summation over time to create AP
141
What is presynaptic inhibition
Occurs when a release of an excitatory neurotransmitter by one neuron is inhibited by activity of another
142
gyri
ridges
143
sulci
grooves- they separate gyri
144
fissures
deep grooves, these separate regions of the brain
145
5 lobes of the brain
1. frontal
2. temporal
3. parietal
4. Occipital
5. Insula(insulated between layers)
146
primary motor cortex
- voluntary skeletal muscle control
| - motor homunculus
147
Broca's Area
-motor speech area, directs lips, tongue, mouth for speech
148
primary somatosensory cortex
- receives sensory input from the body
| - sensory homunculus
149
prefrontal cortex(anterior association area)
-involved with intellect, complex learning and personality
150
posterior association areas
-Known as Wernicke's area or the "sensory speech area" because it enables you to understand written and spoken language
151
basal nuclei
- basal ganglia
- corpus striatum
- function: start, stop and monitors intensity of movements ordered by the cortex and coordinate several movements occurring at once(swinging your arm as you walk)
- degeneration of basal nuclei- Huntington's disease
152
thalamus
Function: relay station for info coming into the cortex for interpretation
- all other inputs ascending to the cerebral cortex go through thalamic nuclei
- involved in memory
153
hypothalamus
Function: main visceral control center of the body , helps maintain homeostasis
1. autonomic control center
2. center for emotional response
3. body temp. regulation
4. regulate food intake
5. regulate water balance or thirst
6. regulate sleep/wake cycles
7. control endocrine system functioning
154
epithalamus
-pineal gland- endocrine gland that secretes melatonin which controls sleep/wake cycles , involved in jet lag
155
superior and inferior colliculi
are nuclei that are visual and auditory reflex centers that make us do things such as turn our head towards a loud noise
156
substantia nigra
- looks dark because of high melanin pigment it produces
- precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamin
- Parkinson's Disease-degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra, preventing release of dopime
157
pons
some nuclei help medulla regulate normal rythym of breathing
158
medulla oblongata
"primitive brain"
- important visceral motor nuclei found here:
1. cardiac center
2. vasomotor center
3. respiratory center
4. vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, sneezing
159
What are some of the functions of the Cerebellum?
- "small brain"
- sensory input from proprioceptors in skeletal muscle, tendons, and joints that allow you to know your body position and how you're moving
- Cognitive function: sends info to the brain stem nuclei, word association & puzzle solving
160
What is a function of the limbic system?
emotional brain
| ex. high blood pressure, heart burn -related to stress
161
What is a function of the Reticular formation(contains RAS)?
- governs arousal and awareness of the brain as a whole
| - filters out ~99% of all sensory input
162
What are the 3 meninges?
1. dura mater - outermost layer
2. Arachnoid mater - thin middle layer
3. Pia mater- innermost- clings to brain surface
