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Anatomy & Physiology 168 > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

Positive feedback system/mechanisms

A
  • Occur when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater.
  • At times, this type of response is required to re-achieve homeostasis
    Ex: during blood loss, thrombin stimulates production of even more thrombin. In this way, a disruption in homeostasis is resolved through a positive feedback system
    Ex: Birth. Stretching around the uterus stimulates contractions of the uterine muscles. The contractions push the baby even further, stimulating further contractions. This positive feedback sequence only ends when the body is delivered from the uterus is eliminated
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2
Q

The ability to see changes in the environment

A
  • Characteristic of life (organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction)
  • Responsiveness. The ability to sense changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes. Responses include actions such as moving toward food or water or moving away from danger
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3
Q

Homeostasis

A

The existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body. To achieve homeostasis the body must regulate conditions that are constantly changing

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4
Q

Levels of structural organization

A

Atom, molecule, organelles, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
- Chemical level, cell level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organism level

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5
Q

Metabolism

A

All the chemical reactions taking place in the cells and internal environment of an organism.

  • Includes an organism’s ability to break down food molecules for energy
  • Necessary for vital functions such as responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction
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6
Q

Tonicity

A

Osmotic pressure of a solution in terms of a cell placed in solution

  • Isotonic, net movement. Cell neither shrinks nor swells
  • Hypertonic cell will shrink (crenate) as water moves out the cell by osmosis
  • Hypotonic - cell swells and lyses as water moves into the cell
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7
Q

Osmotic pressure

A
  • The force required to prevent water from moving by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane
  • Equal to the hydrostatic pressure that prevents net movement of water in a tube
  • Described by 3 words: isosmotic, hyper osmotic, hyposmotic
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8
Q

Hydrostatic pressure

A

The pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. Hydrostatic pressure increases in proportion to depth measured from the surface because of the increasing weight of fluid exerting downward force from above.

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9
Q

Endocytosis

A

A type of vesicular transport that is also a type of active membrane transport. Occurs when material moves through the plasma membrane and into the cytoplasm by the formation of a vesicle. Two types of endocytosis:

1) Phagocytosis cell eating
2) Pinocytosis cell drinking

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10
Q

Active Transport

A

A mediated transport process that requires ATP. Movement of the transported substance to the opposite side of the membrane and its subsequent release from the ATP-powered pump are fueled by the breakdown of ATP
- Moves substances against the concentration gradient
-Can move substances from higher to lower concentrations
- Allows substances to accumulate on once side
Ex: Vesicular transport, sodium-potassium pump

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11
Q

Passive transport

A
  • Cell does not expend metabolic energy (ATP)

- Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

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12
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Type of mediated transport process that moves substances into and out of cells from a higher to a lower concentration

  • Carrier proteins and channel proteins carry out facilitated diffusion
  • Does not require ATP
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13
Q

Four types of tissue

A

Epithelial, nervous, muscle, connective

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14
Q

Simple vs stratified

A

Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, with each cell extending from the basement membrane to the apical surface
Stratified epithelium consists of more than one layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches to the deepest layer to the basement membrane

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15
Q

Squamous

A

Flat or scalelike

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16
Q

Cuboidal

A

Cube shape. About as wide as they are tall

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17
Q

Columnar

A

Tall and thin. Cells tend to be taller than they are wide

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18
Q

Transitional

A

Stratified cells that appear cube-shaped when the organ or tube is not stretched and squamous when the organ or tube is stretched by fluid. The number of layers decreases on stretch

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19
Q

Cell/plasma membrane

A

Functions as a boundary separating the intracellular substances from extracellular substances

  • Encloses and supports the cell contents
  • Attaches cells to the extracellular environment or to other cells
  • Ability to communicate and recognize other cells
  • Phospholipid bilayer
  • Selectively permeable
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20
Q

Steps of mitosis

A

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

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21
Q

Strata of the epidermis

A

Stratum basale - deepest portion. single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells. The epidermis is anchored to the basement membrane by hemidesomosomes.
Stratum spinosum - superficial to the stratum basal. 8-10 layers of many-sided cells. As the cells are pushed to the surface, they flatten, desmosomes break apart, and new desmosomes form. Lamellar bodies are found here with additional keratin fibers
Stratum granulosom - consists of 2-5 layers of somewhat flattened, diamond shaped cells. The presence of keratohyalin (a protein granule) gives this layer its name.
Stratum lucidum - thin, clear zone consisting of several layers of dead cells within indistinct boundaries. Keratin fibers are present but the keratohyalin has dispersed around the keratin fibers, and cells appear somewhat transparent. Only present in thick skin
Stratum corneum - last, most superficial layer of the epidermis. 25+ layers of dead, overlapping squamous cells joined by desmosomes. consists of cornfield cells which are dead cells with a hard protein envelope filled with keratin. Give this layer the structural strength.

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22
Q

Dermis

A
  • Layer of connective tissue that the epidermis rests on. The structure of the dermis is responsible for most of the strength of the skin
  • Fibroblasts, a few adipocytes, macrophages
  • Collagen, elastic and reticular fibers
  • Contains blood vessels that allow for nutrient and waste exchange to the cells of the dermis and the living cells of the epidermis
  • Also contains nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, gland, and lymphatic vessels
  • **Composed of 2 layers: papillary layer and the reticular layer
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23
Q

Arrector pilli

A

Smoothmuscle cells associated with each hair follicle. Extend from the dermal root sheath of the hair follicle to the papillary layer of the dermis. When the muscle contract, they pull the follicle into a more perpendicular position, causes the hair to stand on end. Movement produces goose bumps

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24
Q

Dermal papillae

A

Gives the papillary layer its name. Projections that extend toward the epidermis. Give footprints and fingerprints

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25
Q

Hypodermis/Subcutaneous tissue

A
  • Layer of loose connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers. NOT a part of the skin or the integumentary system.
  • Connects the skin to underlying muscle or bone
  • Supplies the skin with blood vessels and nerves
  • Fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages
  • Stored lipids are also in the subcutaneous tissue where they function in insulation and padding
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26
Q

Carotene

A

Yellowish pigment found in plants such as corn or carrots

  • Lipid soluble
  • When excess amounts are consumed, the excess accumulates in the stratum corneum and gives the skin a yellowish tint
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27
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Red, respiratory protein of erythrocytes. Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide

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28
Q

Pheomelanin

A

A type of melanin.

Two types of pigment give hair its color: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Pheomelanin colors hair orange and red

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29
Q

Eumelanin

A

The most abundant type of human melanin, found in brown and black skin and hair; cross-linked polymers of 5,6-dihydroxyindoles, usually linked to proteins; levels are decreased in certain types of albinism.

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30
Q

Melanin

A
  • Group of pigments primarily responsible for skin, hair and eye color
  • Provides protection against UV light from the sun
  • Large arts are found in freckles, nipples, moles, axillae, genitalia
  • Lips and palms contain less melanin
  • Produced by melanocytes, which are irregularly shaped cells with many long processes that extend between the keratinocytes of the strum basal and the stratum spinous. Melanocytes produce and package melanin into vesicles (melanosomes) which move into cell processes of the melanocyte. Keratinocytes phagocytize the tips of these cell processes and acquire melanin
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31
Q

Mucous membranes

A

An epithelial tissue that secretes mucus and that lines many body cavities and tubular organs including the gut and respiratory passages.

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32
Q

Serous membrane

A

Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs. Very smooth and secrete serous fluid which provides a lubricating film between the layers of the membranes
Two types: visceral and parietal

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33
Q

Synovial membrane

A

The inner layer of the joint capsule. It lines the joint cavity, except over the articular cartilage and articular disks.

  • thin, delicate membrane consists of modified connective tissue cells either intermixed with part of the fibrous capsule or separated from t by a ayer of areolar tissue or adopt tissue
  • Produces synovial fluid, a viscous lubricating fluid that covers the surfaces of a joint
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34
Q

Sudoriferous glans (sweat glands)

A

Two types: eccrine and apocrine

35
Q

Eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands

A

The most popular type of sweat gland. Simple, coiled tubular glands that open directly to the surface of the skin through sweat pores

36
Q

Apocrine sweat glands

A

Simple, coiled tubular glands that usually open into the hair follicles. Found in the axillae and genitalia. Do not regulate temperature in humans. Secretions causes body odor

37
Q

Holocrine gland

A

Gland whose secretion is formed by the disintegration of entire cells (ex: sebaceous glands)
- Entire cells are shed and become part of the secretion

38
Q

Apocrine gland

A

A portion of the cell containing secretory products is pinched off the cell

39
Q

Merocrine (eccrine)

A

Vesicles empty their contents into the duct through exocytosis

  • Most common type of secretion
  • Sweat glands
40
Q

Exocrine glands

A

Glands with ducts

Three types: apocrine, merocrine, holocrine

41
Q

Layers of thick skin

A

All 5 epithelial strata

Found in the palms and soles

42
Q

Functions of the skeletal system

A

Body support, organ protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production

43
Q

Components of the bone matrix

A

65% inorganic material, 35% organic material

  • Organic material primarily consists of collagen and proteoglycans (osteoid)
  • Inorganic material consists primarily of a calcium phosphate crystal, hydroxyapatite
44
Q

Osteogenic cells/Osteochondral progenitor cells

A

Stem cells that can become osteoblasts or chondroblasts

  • Located in the inner layer of the perichondrium and in layers of connective tissue that cover bone (periosteum and endosteum)
  • Osteoblasts are derived from osteochondral progenitor cells and osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts
45
Q

Osteoblast

A

Bone forming cells, have extensive endoplasmic reticulum and numerous ribosomes
- Produce collagen and proteoglycans

46
Q

Osteocytes

A

Once an osteoblast has secreted enough bone matrix to become surrounded by it, the cell is then an osteocyte

  • Mature bone cell
  • Osteocytes occupy the lacunae
47
Q

Osteoclast

A

Bone-destroying cells

  • Perform reabsorption/breakdown of bone that mobilizes crucial calcium ions and phosphate ions for use in many metabolic processes
  • massive, multinucleate cells derived from the red bone marrow that also differentiate into monocytes
  • Secrete acid and protein digesting enzymes which degrade bone and have a ruffled border
48
Q

Where is articular cartilage found? What type of cartilage is it?

A

Hyaline cartilage covering the epiphyses of bones within a synovial joint

49
Q

Amphiarthrosis

A

Slightly movable joints

50
Q

Diarthrosis

A

Freely movable joint

51
Q

Synarthrosis

A

Nonmovable joints

52
Q

Calcitonin

A

Secreted from the thyroid gland when blood calcium ion levels are too high

  • inhibit osteoclast activity by binding to receptors on the osteoclasts
  • Plays a role in calcium homeostasis
53
Q

PTH

A

Parathyroid hormone

  • Major regulator of blood calcium levels secreted by the parathyroid glands
  • When calcium ion levels are too low, it stimulates an increasing the number of osteoclasts which breaks own bone and elevate calcium ion levels
54
Q

Functions of muscle tissue

A

Movement of the body, maintenance of posture, respiration, production of body heat, communication, constriction of organs and vessels, contraction of the heart

55
Q

4 Functional properties of muscle tissue

A

Contractility, excitability, extensibility, elasticity

56
Q

Parts of a neuromuscular junction/synapse

A

The point of contact of motor neuron axon branches with the muscle fiber
- Consists of several enlarged axon terminals that rests in an imagination of the sarcoma

57
Q

Steps involved in muscle contraction start at neuron

A
  • Sliding filament model
  • When a muscle contracts, the actin and myosin myofilaments in the sarcomere slide past one another but remain the same length as when the muscle is at rest
  • When the myofilaments slide part each other and the sarcomeres shorten , the myofibrils also shorten
  • The myofibrils extend the length of the muscle fibers and when they shorten the muscle fibers shorten
  • Muscles shorten, producing muscle contraction
58
Q

Parts of a sarcomere

A

Sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle because it is the smallest portion of skeletal muscle capable of contracting

  • Z disks separate one sarcomere fro the next
  • Actin and myosin myofilaments give the myofibril a striated appearance
  • Each sarcomere consists of 2 light staining bands (I bands)
  • Separates the I bands and is a dark staring band (A band)
  • H zone is in the center of each A band and is where the actin and myosin myofilaments do not overlap
  • M line is in the middle of the H zone and helps hold the myosin myofilaments in place
  • Titin, troponin, G actin
59
Q

T-tubule/Transverse tubule

A

Tubelike invaginations along the sarcolemma that occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber and extends inward, connecting the extracellular environment with the interior of the muscle fiber

60
Q

Motor unit

A

Consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates

  • Action potential in the motor neuron generates an action potential in each of the muscle fibers of its motor units
  • Motor units vary in terms of their sensitivity to stimuli for contraction
61
Q

Components of a reflex arch

A

1) SENSORY RECEPTOR detects a stimulus
2) SENSORY NEURON conducts action potentials through the nerve and dorsal root to the spinal cord
3) In the spinal cord, the sensory neuron synapses with an INTERNEURON
4) The interneuron synapses with a MOTOR neuron
5) The motor neuron axon conducts action potentials through the ventral root and spinal nerve to an EFFECTOR ORGAN

62
Q

Action potential

A

Change in membrane potential in an excitable tissue that acts as an electric final and is propagated in an all-or-none fashion

63
Q

How do ions move during an action potential?

A

1) Resting membrane potential - Na+ channels and most K+ channels are closed. The outside of the plasma membrane is positively charged compared to the inside
2) Depolarization - Na+ channels open and K+ channels open. Depolarization results because the inward movement of Na+ makes the inside of the membrane more positive
3) Repolarization - Na+ channels close and additional K+ channels open. Na+ movement into the cell stops, and K+ movement out of the cell increases, causing depolarization
4) End of depolarization and afterpoential - voltage gated Na+ channels are closed. Closure of the activation gates and opening of the inactivation gates reestablish the resting condition for Na+ channels. Diffusion of K+ through voltage-gated channels produces the after potential
5) Resting membrane potential - resting membrane potential is reestablish after the voyage gated K+ channels close

64
Q

Acetylcholinesterase

A

Enzyme found in the synaptic cleft that causes the breakdown of acetylcholine to acetic acid and choline, limiting the stimulatory effect of acetylcholine

65
Q

Nerve VIII

A 
Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
Exclusively sensory and transmits action potentials from the inner ear responsible for the special senses of hearing a balance
66
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Glial cells of the CNS

  • Have cytoplasmic extensions that can surround axons
  • They form the myelin sheath
67
Q

Schwann cells

A

Glial of the PNS

- form myelin sheaths

68
Q

Ependymal cells

A

Glial cells of the CNS

  • line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord
  • Form choroid pleases which secrete CSF
  • Have patches of cilia that help circulate CSF
69
Q

Microglia

A

Glial cell of CNS

  • CNS specific immune cells
  • phagocytic
  • Act as white blood cells
70
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Part of the motor division of the PNS

- Voluntary (conscious) division of the motor division of the PNS

71
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Division of the autonomic nervous system

  • Fight, flight, freeze, faint
  • Most active during physical activty
72
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Division of the autonomic nervous system

  • Rest and digest
  • Regulated resting function
73
Q

Proprioceptors

A

Proprioception is the sense of your body’s position and movement. Associated with joints, tendons, and other connective tissue

74
Q

Nociceptors/Pain receptors

A

Respond to extreme mechanical, chemical, and thermal stimuli. Respond to more than one type of stimuli

75
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Respond to mechanical force such as compression, bending, or stretching of cells
- Senses of touch, pressure, proprioception, wearing, and balance all depend on a variety of mechanoreceptors

76
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Respond to changed in temperature at the site of the receptor and are necessary for the sense of temperature

77
Q

Synaptic end bulb

A

Axons terminate by branching to form small extensions with enlarged ends. They contain many secretory vesicles the contain neurotransmitters
- Action potentials conducted along the axon to the presynaptic terminal stimulate exocytosis of neurotransmitters from their vesicles into the synapse

78
Q

Node of Ranvier

A

A gap in the myelin sheath of a nerve, between adjacent Schwann cells.

79
Q

Parts of a synapse

A

Presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic membrane

80
Q

Pons

A

Part of the brainstem just superior to the medulla oblongata

  • Contains ascending and descending tracts and several nuclei
  • Contains nuclei for cranial nerves V, VI, VII, VIII
  • Initiates REM sleep, respiratory centers that control respiratory movements
81
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

Most inferior part of the brainstem and is continuous inferiorly with the spinal cord

  • Contains sensory and motor tracts, cranial nerve nuclei and related nuclei
  • Contain 2 prominent enlargements called pyramids
  • rounded oval structures called olives protrude form the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata
  • vital reflexes such as those regulating heart rate, blood vessel diameter, respiration, swallowing, vomiting, hiccuping, coughing, snezing
82
Q

Cerebellum

A

Little brain
Attached to the brainstem posterior to the pons
- Communicates with other regions of the CNS through 3 large tracts called cerebellar peduncles
Has a gray cortex and nuclei with white medulla in between
Consists of 3 parts: inferior part (flocculonodular lobe, lateral hemispheres (2), and a vermis

83
Q

Brain lateralization

A

The lateralization of brain function is the tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other. The medial longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum

84
Q

Limbic system

A

Parts of the diencephalon and cerebrum are grouped together under the title the limbic system

  • Plays a role in basic survival functions: memory, reproduction, nutrition, interpreting sensory input and emotions
  • Consists of certain cerebral cortical areas including the cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, senate gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, olfactory cortex, fornix

Anatomy & Physiology 168 (10 decks)

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