Final Flashcards
The inability to “think outside the box” and create a new interpretation of a problem.
fixation
The inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one. This also occurs during the problem definition stage. Limits our ability to solve problems that require using an object in a novel way.
functional fixedness
The tendency to use previously successful solution strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem. Especially common for strategies that have been used recently.
mental set
A new way to interpret a problem that immediately gives the solution. This rapid understanding is key to the solution.
insight
Is a step by step procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem. This is slow but it produces no errors.
algorithm
A solution strategy that seems reasonable given our past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems. Kind of like an educated guess. Faster but has errors.
heuristics
A rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object resembles that category. Simply put, the rule is: the more representative, the more probable.
representative heuristic
The erroneous belief that a chance process is self-correcting in that an event that has not occurred for a while is more likely to occur. Suppose a person has flipped eight heads in a row and we want to bet $100 on the next coin toss, heads or tails. Some people will want to bet on tails because they think its more likely, but in actuality the two events are still equally likely.
gambler’s fallacy
A heuristic for judging the probability of an event by how available examples of the event are in memory (the more available, the more probable)
We can think of more words beginning with the letter “r” than with “r” in the third position because we organize words in our memories by how they begin. This does not mean that they are more frequent, but only that it is easier to think of them. They are easier to generate from memory. The opposite is the case- words with “r” in the third position are more frequent.
availability heuristic
Is the erroneous belief that two variables are statistically related when they actually are not. If we believe a relationship exists between two things then we will tend to notice and remember instances that confirm this relationship.
Example:
Many people believe a relationship between weather changes and arthritis. Why? They focus on instances when the weather changes and their arthritic pain increases. To determine if this relationship actually exist we need to consider the frequency of all four possible events, the two that confirm the hypothesis and the two that disconfirm it. The two confirming instances would be:
1. when the weather changes and arthritic pain changes
2. when the weather does not change and arthritic pain does not change
The two disconfirming instance would be:
1. when the weather changes but arthritic pain does not
2. when the weather does not change but arthritic pain does.
The confirming events are not more frequent than the disconfirming events so this means there is no relationship between these two variables.
illusory correlation
The tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence. Our beliefs constitute a large part of our identity; therefore, admitting that we are wrong is very difficult. We mostly suffer from this when our beliefs are proved wrong but we still want to hang on to our beliefs.
belief perseverance
Questioning a well established finding because we know a person who violates the finding.
Example:
questioning the validity of the finding that smoking leads to health problems, because we know someone who has smoked most of his or her life and has no health problems. This indicates a failure to understand that these research findings are probabilities.
person-who reasoning
The extent to which the scores for a test are consistent.
Reliability
Acceptable reliability coefficients should be around what?
0.90 or higher
Is the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure or predicts what it is supposed to predict.
Validity
Theories:
Intelligence is mainly a function of a general intelligence (g) factor.
General Intelligence, simplistic
Spearman
Theories:
Intelligence is defined as eight independent intelligences- linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalistic.
8/9 savant syndrome
Gardener
an index of the degree that variation of a trait within a given population is due to heredity. 50% to 70% of the variation in a population intelligence test scores is estimated to be due to heredity. (NATURE)
heritability
genetically determined limits for an individual’s intelligence. The higher the environmental quality, the higher the person’s intelligence within the ________. (NURTURE)
130 110 l l l l l l 100 80 smart not smart
Reaction Range
the fertilized egg that is formed from the union of the sperm and the egg cells; 1-2 weeks.
Zygote
the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus at the start of pregnancy
implantation
the basic unit of genetic instruction; these are short segments of chromosomes.
gene
molecules of DNA that hold the genetic instructions for every cell in our body.
chromosomes
During the _______ stage, (from about two weeks to about two months) the major structures and organs of the body begin to develop, and the ______ starts to resemble a human being.
embryo
During the _______ stage (from about two months following conception to birth), the developing organism is called a ______, through very rapid growth, the body structures and organs complete their development.
fetus
are environmental agents (such as drugs or viruses), diseases (such as German measles), and physical conditions (such as malnutrition) that prenatal development and lead to birth defects or even death.
teratogens
occurs when mothers consume alcohol during pregnancy, resulting in a range of severe effects including mental retardation and facial abnormalities in the child.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Leads infants to suck anything that touches their lips; this is one of the reflexes that we are born with and is part of our motor development.
sucking reflex
leads infants to turn their mouths toward anything that touches their cheeks and search for anything to suck on; this is one of the reflexes that we are born with and is part of our motor development.
rooting reflex
the act of having the power to move from one place to another; learning walking, sitting, crawling, etc…
locomotion
a decrease in the physiological responding to a stimulus once it becomes familiar
For example, infants intensify their sucking of a pacifier in their mouth when confronted with a novel, unfamiliar stimulus. When they get use to the stimulus, the sucking returns to normal.
habituation
Starts at about six or seven months; the rhythmic repetition of various syllables, including both consonants and vowels.
babbling
At about 10 months we may be able to make out something that a child says; At about one year of age, infants begin the _________. Their first words usually refer to their caregivers and objects in their daily environment.
one word stage
is the application of a newly learned word to objects that are not included in the meaning of the word. Occurs during the one word stage.
For example, children tend to call any male “daddy”
overextension
is the failure to apply the new word more generally to objects that are included within the meaning of the new word.
For example, children do not extend the categories of “dog” or “cat” to dogs and cats beyond the family’s pet dog or cat.
under extension
between 18 and 24 months children engage in _______, using two word sentences with mainly nouns and verbs. These two-word statements begin to be expanded, and between the ages of two and five years, children acquire the grammar of their native language.
For example, “Dada gone.” and “Throw ball.”
telegraphic Speech
______ viewed children as little scientist because they are figuring things out by trial and error in the world.
Piaget
from birth to about age two, infants learn about the world through their sensory and motor interactions with it.
sensorimotor stage
from age two to age six, children’s thinking becomes more symbolic and language-based, but remains egocentric and lacks the mental operations that allow logical thinking.
For example, they now can point to a picture of a dog and say “doggie” or crawl around and pretend to be a dog by barking like a dog.
properational stage
In ______ theory, the _________ is the difference between what a child can actually do and what the child could do with the help of others. This is the development between the levels of actual development and potential development. It means that there are thinking skills that the child can display with the help of others but cannot perform independently.
Vygotsky’s; zone of proximal development
In ______, the teacher adjusts the level of help in relation to the child’s level of performance, while directing the child’s learning progress toward the upper level of the child’s zone of proximal development.
scaffolding
people of different ages are studied and compared with one another at a single point in time.
compare people not only of different ages but also different generations. Less expensive and less time consuming. No need for continual retesting.
cross-sectional study
the same people are studied as in a cross-sectional study but for a long period of time. This involves collecting data periodically on the same people as they age. This assesses changes in people over time, whereas cross-sectional studies assess differences among age groups at a particular point in time. More time consuming and expensive. Sample could be discontinued for them moving away or dying. Type of intelligence being tested is also important.
longitudinal study
Different generations can lead to what are called _____ - people of a given age are affected by factors unique to their generation, leading to differences in performance among generations.
For example, there were significant differences in education and educational opportunities for the various generations across the 20th century. Earlier generations generally received less education, which could certainly account for the intellectual decline observed in the cross-sectional studies.
cohort effects
the emphasis is avoiding punishment and looking out for your own welfare and needs. Moral reasoning is self-oriented.
external (tell them not to do it)
rewards/punishments
precoventional level of moral reasoning
