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Geology > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q

feedback

A

forcing like variations in solar radiation, increased volcanic activity can cause climate change

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2
Q

What magma/melt generation does continental rift use

A

decompression melting

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3
Q

Physical appearance of lava domes

A

dome feature- plugging of vent due to high viscosity
small to moderate in size

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4
Q

Whan can precede a volcanic eruption

A

Seismic activity increases
increased gas activity
change in topography
change in temp

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5
Q

Bioturbation

A

Reworking of soft sediment by burrowing organisms

SHALLOW MARINE environments

Used to indicate WATER DEPTH

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6
Q

Schistosity

A

Term for coarse grained, visible, platy minerals in a planar fabric, typical of schists.

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7
Q

Lineation

A

Refer to elongated linear minerals (longer in one direction) that are aligned within a rock

NO orientation into planes

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8
Q

What are the two main contributors to sea level rise as climate warms?

A

Melting of glaciers and sheet ice

Changes in ocean circulation- thermal expansion

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9
Q

Why does contact metamorphism produce only non-foliated metamorphic rocks?

A

No pressure that foliated one need

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10
Q

metamorphic grade

A

range of metamorphic change a rock undergoes, progressing from low (little metamorphic change) grade to high (significant metamorphic change) grade.

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11
Q

What are the components of Earth’s system?

A

Sum of physical, chemical, and biological processes operating on and within the Earth

Geosphere, Atmosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere, Cryosphere

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12
Q

Trace fossils

A

Evidence of ancient organisms behavior

Indirect evidence of past life

Represent activites of organisms while it was alive

Footprints, burrows, tracks, trails, boring, bite marks, skin impression

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13
Q

Magnitude- shaking

A

Larger MW< the stronger and more time the shaking occurs

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14
Q

What does the magnitude of earthquakes refer to?

A

Refers to amount of energy released

Earthquake has ONE magnitude (QUANTITATIVE)

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15
Q

Why is our current climate change so concerning, when climate has changed many times in Earth’s history?

A

It is warming at an accelerate rate than what it should be

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16
Q

Euhedral mineral tells what of the environment

A

well-developed, has room to grow

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17
Q

Protolith

A

The rocks that existed before the changes that lead to a metamorphic rock

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18
Q

Heat induced Melting

A

INCREASE in temp
melting of surrounding rocks from magma intruction of rising mantle plume
MANTLE PLUME
HOTSPOT

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19
Q

Know when the Great Oxygenation Event and the Second Oxygenation event occurred.

A

Great Oxygenation- 2.4-2.3 Billion years ago

Second Oxygenation- 0.7-0.6 Billion years ago

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20
Q

Material of Rock Cycle

A

Igneous Rocks, sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks
Sediment and magma

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21
Q

What are the correlation techniques we went over in lecture?

A

Lithostraigraphic
Stratigraphic
Chronostratigraphic
Biostratigraphic
Magnetic Polarity Reversals

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22
Q

Core

A

Directly below mantle
upper and inner
upper is liquid iron
inner is solid iron

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23
Q

What is elastic rebound theory?

A

Bending of rocks near fault reflect build-up of stress

When stress is greater than frictional resistance of rocks- rocks rupture- slip along fault

After eaerhquake, continuation of stress occurs, causing elastic energt to build back up

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24
Q

brittle deformation

A

rock integrity fails and the rock fractures under increasing stress

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25
Q

What type of fault does mid-ocean ridge spreading centers use

A

Tensional, Normal faults

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26
Q

Negative Feedback

A

suppress/reduce the original cause/effect

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27
Q

What played a role in global cooling trend in the Cenozoic?

A

Anarctic Circumpolar Current

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28
Q

Continental collision

A

two continental plates collide- no subduction

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29
Q

What causes the seasonal variations/ fluctuations between seasons?– CO2

A

Summer- consume CO2- plants photosynthesis

Winter- release CO2- plants die

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30
Q

Why is carbon dioxide the most important GHG?

A

Longest residency time in atmosphere
Up to 1000 years (methane only 12)

Lower GWP (global warming potential)

Largest anthropogenic emission

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31
Q

Native Minerals

A

atoms of one element

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32
Q

Asthenosphere

A

base of lithosphere to 410-660 km down
weak, solid but flows
what tectonic plates are on top of

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33
Q

Disconformity

A

Erosional surface between sedimentary rocks

Deposition of rocks, uplift of rocks, substance and deposition, order

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34
Q

Which type of metamorphism occurs at a relatively low temperature and high pressure environment, and the diagnostic metamorphic rock is blueschist.

A

subduction zone meta

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35
Q

Outer core

A

Liquid iron
Earth’s magnetic field

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36
Q

Foliation Texture

A

A planer alignment of minerals and textures within a rock

Line on plane with no common direction

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37
Q

Principle of Original Horizontally

A

Sedimentary layers (strata) were deposited nearly horizontally and parallel to the earth’s surface

over time, layers can be tilted, folded, or both

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38
Q

What is albedo and how can it affect climate change?

A

When ice/water reflect sunlight back to atmosphere, decreases global warming, less energy that the surface air and ocean absorbs

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39
Q

Subduction

A

plates of different densities converge, higher density is bushed beneath more buoyant plate

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40
Q

What metamorphic rocks are diagnostic of subduction metamorphism?

A

Greenstone, greenschist, blueschist, eclogice

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41
Q

How do hotspots form

A

mantle plume is stable, but plate itself moves, creates volcanic island. as plate moves, island source is cut off and starts to cool down and sink. Plume creates another one, cycle

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42
Q

carbonate minerals

A

calcite, dolomite, malachite, polomite

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43
Q

Lacustrine

A

Continental- Lakes
Low energy environment
Main sediment- fine-grained
Main rock- shale
Main structure- lamination
Main fossil- freshwater organisms

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44
Q

What type of fault does continental rift use

A

Tensional, normal faults

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45
Q

Divergent boundaries types

A

COntinental rift and Mid ocean ridge

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46
Q

Mantle

A

Below crust
2900 km depth
made up of periodite- mostly solid rock
flows as weak solid- some molten

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47
Q

What was the importance of the development of the Antarctic circumpolar current in the Cenozoic?

A

Started the global cooling trend

Allowed it to flow unrestrictedly- isolated it from the warmer waters- cooled and glaciers started to form

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48
Q

Observation

A

comment/statement about what you see/percieve

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49
Q

Pollen proxy

A

Pollen grains on distinctive among different plants

Can use pollen found in ancient sediment and sediment per to induce different climate and environments

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50
Q

What is earthquake intensity

A

Intensity is a measure of the amount of ground shaking at a particular site

Determined from reports of human reaction to shaking, damage done to structures, and other effects

Intensity varies with distance and is an ovservation (QUALITATIVE)

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51
Q

Burial Meta

A

Rock deeply buried 7200 m

Deep sedimentary basins

Extension of diageneis

Increasing temp, CONFINING pressure at depth- low grade- zeolic facus

Quartz sandstone- quartzite

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52
Q

Negative Feedback Examples

A

Increase in CO2-> promotes forest growth, increase CO2 drawdown by photosynthesis= lowers GHG and air temp

Increase in atmospheric CO2-> increase carbonic acid in rain= increase chemical weathering= more CO2 stored in ocean sediments lowers CO2 ending up back in the atmosphere

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53
Q

6 different types of volcanoes

A

Cinder/Scoria Cones
Shield Volcanoes
Stratovolcanoes
Lava Domes
Calderas
Flood Basalts

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54
Q

What does presence of coarser vs finer clast size indicate about energy of envionment and distance

A

coarser- high energy- small distance
finer- low energy- long distance

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55
Q

Physical processes metamorphism

A

Deformation of objects
Rotation
Shearing

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56
Q

Difference between confining pressure and directed stress?

A

Confining
Same amount of stress from all direction
Uniformly distributed- all rocks

Directed
Different amounts of stress from different direction
Unequal distribution
Modifies the parent rock at mechanical level, crates identifying textures- change arrangement, size, or shape of crysalts

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57
Q

rift valley

A

area of extended continental lithosphere, forming a depression, can be narrow or broad

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58
Q

relationship between cooling rate and mineral crystal size (igneous)

A

faster cooling rate means smaller crystal size
slower cooling means larger crystal size

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59
Q

Dunes

A

Meter Scale Ripples

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60
Q

What are sheet silicates

A

Micas

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61
Q

Proxy data

A

fossil identification, stable isotopes, cyclical features

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62
Q

Mesosphere

A

base of asthenosphere to core boundary
more rigid and immobile that asthenosphere

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63
Q

Euhedral

A

perfectly shows its true crystal habit

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64
Q

Hypocenter/focus

A

Where earthquakes is generated, point of origin

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65
Q

What are transport pathways

A

Are mechanisms/processes that make elements between the reservoir

Process: evaporation, precipitation, respiration, transportation, chemical weathering, volcanic organism, photosynthesis

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66
Q

MOR metamorphic process

A

NORMAL faulting, down-dropped fault blocks

CONTACT metamorphism and HYDROTHERMAL chemical alteration

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67
Q

Mid-Ocean Ridge- earthquake

A

Characterized by shallow, small magnitude earthwauke

Because crust is hot and very thin- not large or deep earthquakes

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68
Q

relative dating

A

putting events in order based on relative positions to other geologic features

key relationship principle- sequence of events

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69
Q

Subduction Zone- earthquake

A

characterized by shallow to deep, small to large earthquakes

Largest and deepest earthquakes occur along subduction zones

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70
Q

Varves dating

A

Alternating light and dark layers of sediment due to seasonal variations of sedimentary and biological activity

Light layers- sand and silt during summer

Dark layers- mud during winter

Varves deposit record thousands of millions of years timespan

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71
Q

Contact meta

A

High temp low pressure

Local, small instruction

Shallow depth

Produce NON-FOLIATED rocks

Heat from magma alters rok in comes in contact with (heating, NO deformation)

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72
Q

Continental red beds- oxidation

A

Well-oxidized, iron bearing sediments

Appearance in rock record after 2.3-2 billion years

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73
Q

conglomerates

A

coarse clasts
rounder grains than breccia
poorly to moderately sorted
sand and/or mud matrix

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74
Q

What magma/melt generation does transform boundary use

A

no magma formation

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75
Q

Transgressions

A

Rise of sea level and submergence of the continent under seawater

Depositional environments shift landwards (go further towards land, ocean expanding)

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76
Q

What three factors determines the amount of destruction?

A

Building Materials

Intensity and Duration

Resonance

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77
Q

Fractionation

A

Magma composition erodes as mienrals crystallize out- remaining melt becomes silica rich and felsic
mafic to felsic

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78
Q

Are earthquakes in mid-ocean ridge settings typically deep or shallow, strong or weak? And why is that?

A

Shallow, weak

Because crust is hot and very thin- not large or deep earthquakes

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79
Q

What is stick-slip behavior?

A

Rocks are resistant to movement, when stress gets too much for rocks, they slip- faults rupture

When slip, release energy in form of earthquake

Stress increase, and experience elastic strain

Fault slip b reaking rocks, causing earthquake

Cycle starts again

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80
Q

how valence electronegativity affect covalent and ionic bonds

A

Covalent- elements with similar electronegative combine
ionic- elements with lower give up, higher ones gain, combine

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81
Q

What is the Cambrian explosion?

A

Refers to sudden appearance of numerous and diverse complex marine animals with mineralized skeletcal remains in fossil record

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82
Q

Three ways magma can form

A

Decompression Melting
Flux Melting
Heat Induced Melting

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83
Q

Decompression Melting

A

lowering of Pressure WITHOUT changing the temperature of his rising mantle material
DIVERGENT boundaries (MOR, continental rifting)
HOTSPOTS

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84
Q

What is the difference between normal and reverse faults?

A

Vertical motion, hanging wall movesa DOWNWARD relative to footwall

Reverse- compressional stress, vertical motion, hanging wall moves UPWARD relative to footwall

Thrust- lower angle reverse faults (less than 45)

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85
Q

What directed stress commonly formed folds?

A

Compressional

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86
Q

compaction

A

pressure of overlying sediments decrease pore space between the grain

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87
Q

halides elements

A

halite, Flaurite

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88
Q

Difference between Volcanic island arcs and volcanic island chains

A

Volcanic island arcs- made from subduction (have to do with plate boundaries)
VOlcanic island chain- formed over hotspot

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89
Q

How does viscosity and gas influence eruption stlye

A

High gas- more explosive
High viscosity- stops more gas from escaping- more explosive pyroclastic

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90
Q

Principle of Superposition

A

in undistrubed succession of strata, the oldest layers are at the bottom, successively younger layers above

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91
Q

protolith for greenschist

A

greenslate

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92
Q

Magnetic Polarity Reversals

A

Matching normal and reserval periods recorded in the rocks

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93
Q

Physical appearance of Flood Basalts

A

large igneous provinces
multiple explosive centers from fissured dikes

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94
Q

Extrusive igneous rocks

A

volcanic
magma erupts ABOVE earth’s surface as lava, melts, and solidifies above surface
lava flow and pyroclastic deposits

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95
Q

Sandstone

A

sand lithified to sandstone
coarse grains
wide variety of mineral grains
grain roundness varies
moderate to well sorted

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96
Q

what are 4 common GHG?

A

 Water vapor
 Nitrous oxide
 Methane
 Carbon Dioxide

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97
Q

What role did cyanobacteria have in the oxygenation of Earth’s atmosphere?

A

Algae added oxygen via photosynthesis

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98
Q

Nonconformity

A

Erosional surface between sedimentary rocks and crystalline rocks

Nonlayered rocks uplifted and eroded, erosional surface buried by sediment

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99
Q

Glacial

A

Glaciers expand, forming a new reservoir of isotopically light water on the land; sea level drops and the ocean becomes isotopically heavy

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100
Q

3 major rock categories

A

Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic

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101
Q

What event defined the Precambrian Eon-Paleozoic Era boundary?

A

Cambrian Explosion

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102
Q

Shield volcanoes have low slopes primarily because

A

the low viscosity of basaltic magma allows it to flow downhill for long distances.

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103
Q

What are climate proxy indicators?

A

Biological, chemical, or physical signatures preserved in rock, sediment, or ice records that indirectly call past climate conditions

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104
Q

Climate

A

Variable range of temperatures and precipitation patterns averaged over the long term for a particular region

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105
Q

O-O subduction

A

older, colder plates move under warmer younher one
volcanic island arc

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106
Q

What does low vs high grade metamorphism indicate?

A

Low – finer grained crystals

High- coarser grained crystals

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107
Q

What are the Milankovitch cycles? How do they influence Earth’s climate?

A

Earth’s orbit variations around the sun

Orbital movements- Eccentricity, obliquity, precession

3 variatiosn combine to vary the amount of solar radiation (heat) that Earth receives

Directly influence Earth’s climate over long timespans (10s-100s of thousands of years)

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108
Q

What are consequences of climate change mentioned in lecture?

A

Change in Ocean Circulation

Sea Level Rise

Temperature Change

Distribution of plants, animals

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109
Q

Chalk is considered a biochemical sedimentary rock because

A

It’s a carbonate that formed from the calcium-rich skeletons of microorganisms that had accumulated on the seafloor

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110
Q

Physical appearance of Cinder/Scoira cones

A

smallest volcanoes
conical, steep, symmetric sides

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111
Q

Focus Depth - shaking

A

A deeper focus= less surface shaking

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112
Q

Metamorphic rocks

A

Rocks that are formed by chemical and/or physical textual alterations of pre-existing rocks from temperature and/or pressure changes

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113
Q

Mid-Ocean Ridge

A

Oceanic lithospheric late moves away from each other, widening of ocean crust, new oceanic crust forms
rift valley is center (spreading center) mantle upwells- decompression melting

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114
Q

Local Geological Conditions: Substance Material - shaking

A

Seismic waves travel slower in unconsolidated material like sediment- increase surface wave motion and shaking

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115
Q

Know the percentage of radioactive isotopes (parent atoms) that are left in a sample after: 1 half-life, 2 half-lives, 3-half-lives

A

1 half life- 50
2 half life- 25
3 half life- 12.5

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116
Q

How does crystal size and metamorphic fabric (foliation degree) relate to metamorphic grade?

A

Smaller crystal size- low
Bigger crystal size- high

Foliation- high
Non-foliation- low

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117
Q

How is magma caused in divergent boundaries

A

decompression melting

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118
Q

strengths of the bond

A

Order of strongest to weakest
covalent, ionic, metallic, Inter.Mol. attr.

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119
Q

Qualitative

A

Description, observation, based on numerical data
( words, sketches, images)

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120
Q

Great Dying Extinction

A

Boundary- Paleozoic and Mesozoic- 252 Million years ago

Earth’s deadliest mass extinction – 96% all life

Causes- combination of changes
Volcanic activity in Siberia and China= Siberian Traps, massive amount of CO2 in atmosphere
Sea level dropped- reduce area of shallow seas
Aridity on continents increase- drying out
Meteroite impact
Deep sea Anoxia

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121
Q

Sheet silicate

A

Micas- silica tetrahedron share bottom 3 oxygen atoms, one left in corner, bonded weakly to other sheets

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122
Q

Transform boundaries

A

fault of these called strike slip fualt
crust is deformed
no volcanoe, lot of earthqyake,
found along mid-ocean ridges

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123
Q

what defines Sulfates

A

sulfate tetrahedron (SO4)

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124
Q

Magma compositions of Flood Basalts

A

low viscosity
Basalt lava flows

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125
Q

mineral cleavage

A

mineral breaks along a plane of weakness

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126
Q

Rules that a mineral must meet

A

naturally occurring
inorganic
crystaline internal structure
solid crystalline substance
defined chemical composition

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127
Q

cementation

A

precipitation of minerals from water within pore spaces bind grain together

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128
Q

What are the two non-anthropogenic ways the carbon cycle can be unbalanced?

A

Long periods of above-average volcanic activity
 Siberian and Deccan Traps (Flood basalts)

Significant mountain-building events= increased rocks being weathered
 Himalayan Mountains

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129
Q

Partial Melting

A

different minerals make up rocks, minerals melt at different times
Resulting melt more felsic
increase from ultramafic to mafic- felsic melts from rock sooner

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130
Q

What are the different unconformities

A

Angular unconformity
Nonconformity
Disconformity

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131
Q

What type of fault does Transform boundaries use

A

shearing, Strike-slip faults

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132
Q

ductile deformation

A

plastic deformation that produced folds, irreversible but does not break the rock

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133
Q

what defines Halides

A

halogens

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134
Q

What four factors determines the amount of shaking an area experiences from an earthquake?

A

Magnitude
Location and Direction
Local Geological COnditions: Substance Material
Focus Depth

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135
Q

Banded Ion Formation

A

Increase in oxygen cause dissolved iron to deposit on ocean floor

Found in rocks 3.6-1.9 Billion years ago

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136
Q

Isostasy

A

Relationship between crustal thickness, density, and elevation

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137
Q

Ice cores (bubbles)- proxy

A

Chemistry of trapped gases (ancient atmospherically CO2) in ice layers revelas the comp of the atmosphere over the past 800,000 years

Oxygen isotopes from annual ice layers, ratio of 180-160 uses to determine temp

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138
Q

Schistosity is an example of which type of chemical or physical metamorphic process?

A

Rotation

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139
Q

Primary Wave

A

Compressed material in direction of propagation

Fastest wave

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140
Q

What is used to classify igneous rocks

A

Texture and composition

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141
Q

most common rock forming mineral group- why

A

silicates
most abundant elements in Earth’s crust are silicon and oxygen

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142
Q

Vesicles- what does it indicate

A

pressure gas bubbles
magma is gassy- explosive

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143
Q

Beach

A

Transitional
Important transport process- wave and tidal current
Main sediment- sand
Main rock- sandstone
Main strucute- plane bed, large cross beds
Constant wave activgity, little to no structure preserved
Main fossils- bioturbation, marine invertebrates, rare vertebrates, some corals

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144
Q

What are the two processes of lithification

A

cementation
compaction

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145
Q

As magma cools minerals crystallize out causing a change in the remaining magma composition. What is this process called?

A

Fractional crystallization

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146
Q

What are two types of body waves

A

P-Wave (Primary)
S- Wave (Secondary Body Wave)

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147
Q

Mudcracks and raindrop impressions

A

When wet-logged clay rich sediment dries out

Shrinking mud forms cracks- get preserved if sediment fills in cracks

Can form TIDAL FLATS; DRIED LAKES: SHORELINES

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148
Q

Isotopic minerals dating

A

4.5 Billion
dated moon rocks
oldest dates on Earth’s rocks

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149
Q

Why do seismic wave paths curve through the earth?

A

Rocks get denser deeper in the Earth

Waves paths permit us to find depth to crust mantle boundary

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150
Q

What are the three lines of evidence that provide the age of the Earth?

A

Isotopic minerals
Radioactively unstable isotopes (decay rates)
Other methods- tree rings, ice cores, varves

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151
Q

Diverge plate movements

A

Away from each other

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152
Q

Carbonization

A

Organisms get compressed and only carbon preserved: carbon silhouette

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153
Q

Uniformitarianism

A

Process at work today is same as how they were in the past

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154
Q

what controls magma viscosity

A

Magma Composition and temperature

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155
Q

internal atomic arrangement

A

proton and neutron in nucleus in middle, electron outside

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156
Q

5 different types of metamorphism

A

Contact
Regional
Subduction Zone
Burial
Fault

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157
Q

What are the two main evidence for the formation of Earth crust in Earth’s very early history?

A

Greenstone- metamorphed lava rock- magic

Shattered rocks from impacts

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158
Q

Mudstone (siltstone/claystone)

A

fine grained
silt lithified to silt
clay lithified to clay

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159
Q

Continental Drift Hypothesis

A

continents were originally connected and then drifted apart

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160
Q

Know the sense of slip (vertical or horizontal) between dip-slip and strike-slip faults.

A

Dip Slip is vertical
Strike- slip horizontal

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161
Q

Major defining Characteristic of Divergent boundaries

A

crustal strething- creation of new crust

162
Q

Change in ocean circulation

A

Ocean current influence climarte of a region and transfer warmed equalatorial water to colder poles

Surfrace current driven by wind

Ocean conveyor belt (surface and deep oceanv current) driven by density: salinity and temperature

Change in conveyor belt due to
* Influx of freshwater
* Warming temperatures

163
Q

What makes radiocarbon dating different from other radioisotope decay series such as U-Pb, K-Ar?

A

Radiocarbon dating- 5730 years, used on material no older than 60,000 years

Used on organic matter

Other ones are much longer

164
Q

What are the ways fossils can be preserved

A

Permineralization

Casts or molds

Carbonization

Unaltered Remains

165
Q

If you were shown a figure of earthquake hypocenters indicating a trend of shallow to deep hypocenters- what would you be able to infer? What would the trend indicate?

A

Subduction zones, slabs got subducted

166
Q

Physical appearance of stratovolcanoes

A

distinct crater at top
rise high above landscape
snowcapped and steep symmetrical flanks

167
Q

Difference in relative to absolute dating

A

one is based on sequence of events

assigning an age in years

168
Q

Transform plate movement

A

plate boundaries move horizontally past each other

169
Q

Know the order of seismic wave arrival recorded by a seismograph for P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves.

A

P-Waves, S-Waves, Surface Waves

170
Q

Igneous rock

A

formed from crystallization and solification of magma or lava

171
Q

Bowen’s Reaction Series

A

The concept that describes the crystallization order of silicate minerals in melt related to temperature

172
Q

Intraplate- earthquake

A

In areas of weakened crust or contentrated tectonic stress

173
Q

Why was continental drift hypothesis rejected

A

not explain mechanism of how continents moved apart

174
Q

metallic bonding

A

sharing of electrons between many atoms- loosely connected to nucleus

175
Q

Interpretation

A

logical scientific interference based on observation and numerical data and prior knowledge

176
Q

Which clastic sedimentary rock would be more likely deposited in a low energy environment?

A

mudstones or shales

177
Q

Non-Foliation Texture

A

Metamorphic textures that do not have a directional component of its minerals

178
Q

Breccia

A

coarse angular clasts
poorly sorted- large boulders to fine sediment
clasts of different rock types or all same type of rock

179
Q

Order of Sedimentary rock process in rock cycle

A

Weathering (mechanical and chemical)
erosion, transport, deposition
Burial
lithification, diagenesis

180
Q

Who proposed Continental drift hypothesis

A

alfred wegener

181
Q

Magma compositions of Cinder/Scoira cones

A

low viscous lava
mafic lava with high volatiles (gassy)

182
Q

Stromatolites

A

Flat or hemispherically laminated structured of fine caebonate, fine organic matter, and clay/silt
Formed by trapping and binding of cyanobacteria
Formed today by mainly in shallow tidal zones
Oldest fossil
Occur in carbonate limestones

183
Q

Mesozoic- organisms known for

A

Dinosaurs and flowering plants

184
Q

Low oxygen environment fossil

A

Slow decay, no bacteria or organisms that require oxygen

185
Q

Sea level rise

A

If all land ice melted, estimated 216 ft rise in sea level

186
Q

Clastic sedimentary rocks are classified (dominantly) based on what?

A

grain size

187
Q

oxide minerals

A

hematite, magnetite, bauxite

188
Q

peat

A

partially decayed vegetation or organic matter converted into carbon-rich coal under high temp and pressure

189
Q

Chemical Sedimentary rocks classification

A

organic
inorganic
biochemical

190
Q

Precambrian- organisms known for

A

Simple creatures and fossils- stromatolites, cyanobacteria

191
Q

What metamorphism occurs along continental collision settings? (choose all that apply)

A

regional metamorphism focued within thrust sheets

192
Q

ionic

A

transger electrons

193
Q

Flux melting

A

Addition of volatives allows rock to melt at lower temp
NO change in temp or pressure
SUBDUCTION ZONES

194
Q

Evidence to Continental drift hypothesis

A

COastlines of continents fit together (continental shelves)
Similar rocks, mountains, fossils, and glacial formation across oceans
Glaciers in tropical places and tropical plants in arctic places

195
Q

what are magnetic stripes on seafloor and how are they formed

A

formed by when magma cools, iron bound minerals align themselves with Earth’s current magnetic field
represent changes in dirextion of magnetic poles

196
Q

Inner Core

A

Pressure too intense, iron ins solid

197
Q

sulfides minerals

A

galena, Pyric (fools Gold)

198
Q

what tectonic setting uses decompression melting

A

Mid-Ocean Ridge
Continental rift
(Divergent boundary)

199
Q

What is the evidence of our recent climate change?

A

Changes in weather patterns, changes in frequency or strength of severe storms

Iuncreased air temp- greater moisture capacity of atmosphere= increasing potential for more extreme events

Extreme weather events increasing

Increased atmosphere carbon dioxide

200
Q

Regional Meta

A

Alteration of rock by increase temp with high pressure (heating AND deformation)

Wide range in depths, temperature, and pressure

Distributed through wide geographic area

Caused by lagsacre geologic processes (mountain- compression)

Regional produced FOLIATED rocks

201
Q

Resonance

A

Seismic wave frequency matched a building’s natural shaking frequency- increased shaking

202
Q

What are the six key principles of relative dating

A

Principle of Superposition
Principle of Original Horizontally
Principle of Lateral Continuity
Principles of Cross Cutting Relationships
Principles of Inclusions
Principles of Fossil Succession

203
Q

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks form by which metamorphic process?

A

Recrystallization

204
Q

K-T Extinction

A

Boundary- Mesozoic to Cenozoic

Dinosaurs extinction

Causes
* Dinosaur population already declining
* Deccan Traps- extensive volcanic activity
* Changes in continental configuration and ocean circulation
* Global temperature falling
* Sea level drops
* Impact of Chicxulub meteorite
o Shocked quartz
o Concentration of Iridium layer
o Crater size of impact

205
Q

Assimilation

A

incorporates the host rock that magma is intruding into
piece of surrounding block gets added to melt/magma, pieces partially melt

206
Q

Protolith for marble

A

limesotne

207
Q

Anticline

A

arch like- A shaped- folds that are convex upward

Downward curvling limbs that dip down and away from central fold

208
Q

Graded Bedding

A

Change in grain size within a sediment bed

Trends from coarse to finer; or finer to coarser

Caused by changes in currents speed

Events like FLOOD, LANDSLIDES, SUBMARINE LANDSLIDES

209
Q

ways to atoms can bond to form minerals

A

covalent
ionic
metallic
inter-molecular force bonding (Van Der Waals)

210
Q

Chronostratigraphic

A

Use of absolute dating methods to match rocks of the same age even though made of different lithologies

Different lithologies of sedimentary rocks can form at same time at different geographic locations between depositional environments vary geographically

211
Q

Types of Subduction

A

Oceanic-Oceanic
OCeanic-Continental

212
Q

Viscosity

A

resistance to flow

213
Q

Tree Rings proxy

A

Annual tree rings can vary in width dependent on conditions, variations in precipitation, temo

Narrower rings indicate colder and drier climate

214
Q

Synclines

A

trough-like, U shaped, folds that are concave up (like cup)

beds dip down and toward central fold

215
Q

Principles of Cross Cutting Relationships

A

Rock unit, sediment body, or fault that cuts another geologic unit is uounger than the unit that was cut

Youngest feature cuts older features

216
Q

Unaltered Remains

A

Freeze-dried; pickled in tar; amber encasing

217
Q

Sediment cores and oceanic microfossils proxy

A

deep sea sediment indirect indicator
chemical records of stable oxygen, carbon, boron isotopes
O isotopes is fossil microorganisms shells

218
Q

Special properties of minerals

A

magnetism
dendity (specific gravity)
efforescence (acid test)
fluorescence

219
Q

Clastic Sedimentary rocks classification

A

Breccia
conglomerates
sandstones
mudstone
shale

220
Q

what tectonic setting uses Flux melted magma

A

O-C subduction
O-O subduction
(subduction)

221
Q

What tectonic settings use tensional, normal faults

A

Continental rift
MOR spreading centers
(Divergent)

222
Q

In what environments does low pressure/high temperature metamorphism occur

A

near magma intrustion at shallow depth

223
Q

Temperature Change

A

Some regions getting colder and others warmer

224
Q

Continental Rifts Meta process

A

NORMAL faulting, down dropped fault nlocks

CONTACT metamorphism; SHEARING along deep faults, HYDROTHERMAL chemical alteration; BURIAL metamorphism

225
Q

What tectonic settings use Compressional, Thrust/reverse faults

A

Subduction (convergent boundaries)
Continetal collision
Convergent boundaries

226
Q

Halides

A

Halogens
evaporation and precipitation

227
Q

What do unconformities indicate in the rock record

A

period during which deposition did not occur or erosion removed rock that had been deposited, so there are no rocks that represent events of Earth’s history during that span of time at that place

228
Q

native elements examples

A

gold, silver, copper

229
Q

types of convergent boundaries

A

Subduction and continental collision

230
Q

Biochemical

A

formed from shells/skeletons of marine/freshwater organisms
Organisms extract dissolved material out of water to form shells, when dies, the hard parts deposit on sea floor as sediment that lithifies when buried

fossiliferous limestone
chalk
biogenic chert
stromatolites

231
Q

Transform Boundaries

A

FAULT metamorphism- strike-slip faulting

232
Q

Strike Slip Faults- stress and plate tectonic

A

Side-to-side motion – areas of compression or tension
Transform plate boundaries

233
Q

What is a seismic gap? What does it indicate?

A

When and where earthquakes occurred in the past

Determine locations and recurrence intervals

234
Q

Angular unconformity

A

Erosional surface with flat/horizontal rock layers above and tilted rock layers below

235
Q

Major defining Characteristic of continental collision

A

Convergent boundary
tall broad mountains
little volcanism
broad zone of frequent earthquakes

236
Q

Hard parts- fossils

A

More difficult to break down or less likely to be eaten

237
Q

Eccentricity

A

shape of Earth’s orbit- 100,000 years- 413,000 years

238
Q

Anhedral

A

shows no crystal habit
becuase not prone to habit or grew in way that it was confied and oculd not grow normally

239
Q

What is stratigraphic correlation?

A

Uses straitigraphic relationships between strata that are located in distant geographical areas to determine which are the same age- matching sequence of rock formation

240
Q

Inorganic Sedimentary rocks high evaporation rate

A

cause bodies of water to dry up
Dissolved ions precipitation out of solution
Forming evaporate minerals
Salt, calcite, gypsum, halite

241
Q

names of common rock forming mineral groups

A

Silicates
carbonates
oxides
sulfides
sulfates
halides
phosphates
native minerals

242
Q

importance of radioactive isotopes

A

Each radioactive element decays at a predictable constant rate that is uniwue to that element- can tell how old element is by how much parent isotopes are left

243
Q

Biostratigraphic

A

Use of index fossils to determine the age of the rocks that fossils are found in

Represent single group of orfganisms that were uniquely present during specific intervals of geologic time

Most useful index fossils have short age span, widely distributed, abundant, and distinctive

244
Q

Principle of Lateral Continuity

A

Strata layers are continuous in all directions until they thin out at the edge of that basin

245
Q

Location and Direction- shaking

A

Distance from Epicenter, path of rupture propagation

246
Q

recurrence interval

A

average time between repeating earthquake- varies based on fault

247
Q

phosphates minerals

A

apatite

248
Q

What are the three factors that help the chance of fossil preservation which we went over in class

A

Hard parts

Rapid Burial

Low oxygen environment

249
Q

What type of heat does GHGs trap?

A

Thermal IR
NOT UV light, visible light, or IR

250
Q

what are different types of sedimentary structures

A

Bedding planes
Laminatiosn
Graded Bedding
Bed Forms
Cross Beds
Bioturbation
Mudcracks and Raindrop impressions

251
Q

What does grain size, sorting, and clast shape indicate and environemtn distance

A

grain size- as size gets smaller, longer transport time

sorting- more well sorted the rock is, longer the distance

shape- rounder (smoother) it is, the longer the distacance

252
Q

what defines silicates

A

silicon tetra-hedral (SiO4)

253
Q

Know what are the two likely causes of the extinction of the last ice-age Megafauna during the Cenozoic

A

Overkill hypothesis
Humans killed them

Climate change hypothesis

254
Q

half life

A

Each isotope gradually decays to form a new isotope, after one half life, 50 percent of parent life remains

255
Q

Mudstone

A

general term for fine grained sedimentary rocks

256
Q

Regression

A

Drop of sea level and withdrawal of water from the land

Depositional environments shift seaward (go towards sea, ocean regressing)

257
Q

Fluvial

A

Continental- Rivers

High low energy, water transport

Meandering and braided rivers
Meandering- 1 single channel
Braided- multiple channels

Main sediments- sand, mud, coarse grains
Main rocks- sandstone, conglomerates, siltstone
Main structure- cross beds, asymmetric ripples, channels
Main fossils- bone beds,

258
Q

What magma/melt generation does Mid-Ocean RIdge use

A

Decompression melting

259
Q

Continental Collision Meta Process

A

REGIONAL and FAULT metamorphism

Focused within THRUST shets (fold and thrust belt

SHEARING< folding and strongly FOLIARED Rocks, such as slates, schist, gneiss

SHEARING along deep faults

260
Q

Laminations

A

Parallel layers, less than 1 cm thick, fine grained sediments

Fine grained sediment deposited in QUIET,

LOW energy environment

Lake, deep ocean

261
Q

Principle of Inclusions

A

Fragments of rock within a large rock unit are older than the rock its enclosed within

262
Q

Convergent plate movement

A

move toward each other

263
Q

sulfates examples

A

gypsum, epsom salts

264
Q

carbonates

A

has Ca, mg, Fe with carbonate. More than 50 different types-

265
Q

Corals - proxy

A

chemistry of coral growth layer is affectdd by laminations in the temp and water comp around them

The info in their layers can tell us what the local climate was like at the time they were created

266
Q

Effusive Eruption

A

Non-explosive eruptions
low gas and low viscosity
lava dome and lava flow

267
Q

evidence for seafloor spreading and age of ocean crust

A

Magnetic stripes of floor
ocean drilling
GPS measurements
ocean trenches, lined up earthquakes, GPS measurements, mid-ocean ridge, and Paleomagnetism

268
Q

Magma compositions of lava domes

A

high viscosity
highly fractured solified lava (intermediate-felsic)

269
Q

Law of superposition

A

in undisturbed layers of rock, oldest layers are at the bottom and youngest at the top

270
Q

Major defining Characteristic of Transform boundaries

A

no volcanoes
rarely mountains
lots of earthquakes
crust deformed

271
Q

What is the relationship between CO2 and global temperature? Do they covary? Why?

A

CO2 and temperature are in direct correlation

They Covary

Due to variation in solar heat from cyclical changes in Earth’s orbit around the sun (Milankovitch cycles)

272
Q

Reverse fault- stress and plate tectonic

A

Compressional Forces
Convergent Plate Boundaries- Subduction

273
Q

Processes of Rock Cycle

A

Crystallization
Weathering
Melting
Lithification
Change in temp and/or pressure

274
Q

Deltas

A

Transitional - Where rivers enters oceans

Three types- river delta, wave delta, tide dominated delta
Main sediment: channelized sand, mud, organic matter (swamp)
Main rock- clastic rocks, coal/organic sedimentary rocks (swamps)
Main structure- cross bed, delta seidments, sequence (muds to fine sand to coarse sands and organic rich rocks)
Main fossils- many to few fossils

275
Q

What are reservoirs

A

Places where elements are stocked in earth system

Ocean, lake, atmosphere, rocks, plants, animals

276
Q

Precession

A

direction earth’s tilted axis (19,000-24,000)

277
Q

What is the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum?

A

Warm period before Cenozoic cooling

40-35Ma global coolinh turned to tectonic events

278
Q

two different types of igneous rocks

A

intrusive and extrusive

279
Q

Trace and body vs indirect and direct

A

Indirect- trace
Direct- Body

280
Q

How does present day CO2 concentration in the atmosphere compare to the past 400,000 years?

A

Current CO2 concentration is the highest it has been since 400,000 years

10x fasrer than average rate of global warming after a glacial period

281
Q

common physical properties of minerals to help geologist identify

A

color, luster, streak, crystal habit

282
Q

What causes initial magma composition to change

A

Partial Melting
Fractionantion
Assimilation

283
Q

Inorganic

A

evaporates/precipitates from water (by chemical reactions)
Classified by composition

284
Q

Subduction Zone

A

Unique: High pressure, low tempes

Slabs slow to increase in temp at depth, pressure larger affedct

Mafic oceanic lithosphere subducted and meta
Greenston, greenschist, blueschist, eclogice

285
Q

Which type of magma is typically silica-rich felsic or intermediate in composition and produce granites, rhyolites, tuffs, and andesites?

A

High Viscosity Magma

286
Q

what defines Sulfides

A

S2

287
Q

elastic deformation

A

Strain that is reversible after a stress is released

Material that gets deformed but when applied stress is removed the material goes back to its unstrained state

288
Q

Magma compositions of stratovolcanoes

A

high viscosity and silicate
felsic magma chamber

289
Q

Absolute Dating

A

Numeric Method of dating a geologic material or event to a specific amount of time in past

Assigning an age in years

290
Q

Physical appearance of shield volcano

A

long angles, broad flanks
small vents and craters at top
can be largest of volcano- size varies

291
Q

Van Der Waals

A

produce from intermol. attraction b/w one molecule and a neighboring molecule

292
Q

Quantitative

A

observations based on numericals dta using tools, instruments

293
Q

Physical appearance of Calderas

A

moderate to very large circular, steep-walled depressions

294
Q

Metamorphic textures

A

foliation
lineation
non-foliated
schistosity

295
Q

Tree rings dating

A

Dendrochronology- dating of wooden objects by counting growth rings

Characteristics of growth rings inside a tree tell how old tree is

Extends 9000 years

296
Q

Bed Forms

A

Sedimentary structures formed from a current (water or wind) working on sandy sediment

Ripples

Dunes

297
Q

Boron isotopes

A

Analyze boron-isolate ratios of fossil microorganisms shell from deep-sea sediment cores

Relative abundance of Boon isotopes- 10B and 11B to sense pH

Increase in atmosphere CO2, make more CO2 absorved in ocean, carbonic acid

298
Q

Positive Feedback

A

amplify/enhance the original cause/effect

299
Q

Interglacial

A

Isotopiocally light water evaporates from the ocean and returns via rivers the system is in balance

300
Q

Magma compositions of Calderas

A

Intermediate to felsic comp

301
Q

What are the two main evidence suggesting that free oxygen began to accumulate in Earth’s atmosphere during the Precambrian Eon?

A

Banded Ion Formation

Continental red beds- Oxidation

302
Q

Order of Bowen’s reaction series

A

Ultramafic, Mafic, Intermediate, Felsic

303
Q

What are the components of the biological carbon cycle?; geochemical carbon cycle?

A

Biogeochemical- biotic, involve organisms

Geochemical- Abiotic

304
Q

Continental rift

A

continents breaking apart, crust thickening, causing faults and rift valley
mantle upwelling
narrow or broad (Garben and Horst)

305
Q

plastic deformation

A

Brittle and ductile

Strain is IRREVERSIBLE

Change to rock its permanent and material is no longer able to revert to its original shape

306
Q

Body fossils

A

Remains of actual organism that have been altered

Direct evidence of past life

Durable and inedible hard parts (bones, teeth, shells)

307
Q

Shale

A

fissile mudstones, separated into thin sheets

308
Q

Would you expect younger or older rocks to be in the center of a syncline or anticline?

A

Syncline- youngest rock is in center

Anticline- oldest in the center

309
Q

what defines Phosphate

A

Phosphate tetrohedron (PO4)

310
Q

Ground motion from seismic waves can cause what sort of hazards?

A

Structural damage, landslides, land elevation change, liquefaction, tsunamis

311
Q

What is the Keeling Curve and its significance?

A

direct measurement of atmospheric CO2 taken since 1958

312
Q

Scientific method steps

A

make observation, identify problem, and/or form a question
form one or more hypothesis
conduct experiment, hypothesis revision
peer review, publication, and replication
Scientific theory development

313
Q

Where do earthquakes occur?

A

Mid-Ocean Ridge

Continental Rifts

Continental Collision

Subduction Zone

Intraplate

Transform Boundaries

314
Q

Sulfides

A

sulfide bonded, metallic lust, igneous environment

315
Q

Know the names of the three eras of the Phanerozoic eon

A

Paleozoic

Mesozoic

Cenozoic

316
Q

Chemical and physical properties of layers in caves- proxy

A

Ice cores, corals, lake and ocean sediments, stalactites

317
Q

framework silicate

A

feldspar and quarts
share all 4 oxygen wit hadjacent tetrahedrons

318
Q

Cross-Beds

A

How do ripples and Dunes Migrate
Wind or water transport grains on upstream side and deposits grains on downstream side

Migrating dune/ripple erodes, the crest in front of it , leaving base as layer behind with crossbedding

Downstream migration of ripples produce crossbedding

Paleocurrent direction
Crossbeds tilt down- current and thus indicate DIRECTION OF FLOW

319
Q

Positive Feedback Examples

A

Global warming-> permafrost thaws, once frozen organic matter decays by oxidation, release CO2 and CH4 into atmosphere
* Increase warming effect

Global warming-> loss of ice sheets reduces land and albedo, land, oceans, surface air absorvs more energy, increase warming effect

320
Q

WHy have flood basalts been a cause of extinction events

A

Release SO2- block sun from earth- cool- acid rain
Release CO2- global warming
long lasting eruptions

Deccan Trapps- 1/3; extinction of dinosaurs
Siberian Trapps- Great Dyinh- 95%

321
Q

What are proxy indicators examples

A

Proxy data
fossils
pollen
chemical and physical propers of layers in caves
stable oxygen isotopes
interglacial
glacial
sediment cores and oceanic microfossils

322
Q

Weather

A

short term temperatures and precipitation patterns that occur in days and weeks

323
Q

What defines Oxides

A

bonds with O

324
Q

Paleozoic- organims known for

A

Crinoids, corals, clams, certain fish, plants, insects, amphibians

325
Q

What does Earth’s outer core have to do with alternating magnetic patterns

A

outer core is liquid iron, constantly moving, convection and rotation (dynamic)

326
Q

Oxides

A

With oxygen- banded ion formation- iron oxide-red streak

327
Q

What did the opening of the Drake Passage result in?

A

allowed the water around Antarctica—the Antarctic Circumpolar Current—to flow unrestrictedly west-to-east, which isolated the southern ocean from the warmer waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. The region cooled significantly, and by 35 million years ago, glaciers had started to form on Antarctica.

328
Q

What are the differences between regional, contact, and subduction metamorphism?

A

Regional
Increasing temperature and Pressure
Heating AND deformation
Foliated
Range of depth

Contact
High temp, low Pressure
Heating NO deformation
Non-foliated
Shallow depth

Subduction
High Pressure low temp
Deformation NO heating

329
Q

Non-Foliated

A

Texture is granular and equi-dimensional (sugar)
NO alignment/orientation of minerals
NO new minerals form, usually composition of one kind of mineral

Quarts-rich sandstone- Quartzich
Interlocking Quartz cryals
Granual hard rocks

330
Q

lithosphere

A

curst and upper mantle
outermost layer
strong, rigid, brittle, broken into plates

331
Q

what defines carbonates

A

CO3

332
Q

Bowen’s reaction series

A

** Illustrates the relationship of silicate minerals and temp **

Idealized model for crystallization of silicate minerals in a magmatic system

333
Q

Inorganic Sedimentary Rock- Travertine

A

calcite slowly precipitate from water, leaving thin band/layer (caves and hot spring)

334
Q

Fossils proxy organisms

A

plants, animals, pollen microorganisms

335
Q

Obliquity

A

angle Earth’s tilted axis- 41,000 yrs- 21,5-24.5 – 23.5 angle

336
Q

Inorganic Sedimentary- Banded Ions Formations

A

iron oxide precipitated from ocean water depositing on ocean floor in concentration bands, alternating with chert

337
Q

Major groups of silicates

A

olivine
pyroxene
amphibole
micas (biomite, muscovite)
feldspars
quartz

338
Q

why are caldera, flood basalts, volcanic dome, stratovolcano more dangerous than scoria or shield

A

Scoria and Shielf- localized eruptions
Others- explosive eruptions that are far reaching

339
Q

Monocline

A

step-like folds that rock are upward or downwar, then flat

340
Q

Sedimentary Rock

A

rocks that are formed from sediment created by weathering (chemical or physical) of pre-existing rocks

341
Q

what is relationship between cooling rate and igneous rock type

A

extrusive- faster cooling
intrusive- slower cooling

342
Q

Subduction Zone

A

Convergence
SUBDUCTION and REGIONAL metamorphism

Reverse/Thrust Faulting
FAULT metamorphism and BURIAL metamorphism

CONTACT metamorphism- magma intrusion into continental crust

343
Q

Low viscosity

A

lava spreaf out- higher temp and FEWER silica chains (mafic)

344
Q

What is the general trend in the Keeling graph?

A

Increasing

345
Q

Shallow Marine

A

Continental shelf- Marine
Moderate energy, storms
Important transport process- waves and tidal current s
Main sediment- fine sand and mud
Main rock- mudstone, sandstone, carbonates
Structures- planar bedding, cross beds, storm influence
Main fossils- bioturbation, few marine invertebrates, fish

346
Q

Explosive Pyroclastic Eruption

A

Explosive eruption
high gas and high viscosity
lava fountaining, pyroclastic flow, eruption channel + ash cloud

347
Q

Fault Meta

A

Fault where reach duxtile zone- shear rock

Mylongic form- created by dynamic recrystallization through directed shear forces

Larger, stronger mineral crystals may form augments

348
Q

Permineralization

A

Mineral replacement of original material preserving organisms structures/features

Precipitation from groundwater, petrified wood

349
Q

Earthquake epicenter

A

Point on Earth’s surface directly above hypocenter

350
Q

Crust

A

two different- Oceanic and Continental
Oceanic- basalt, 6-7 km thickness
Continental- granite, 35 km thickness

351
Q

Which seismic waves can travel through the Earth and which only travel the upper few kilometers of Earth’s surface/crust.

A

Surface Wave

352
Q

Physical Layers

A

Lithosphere
asthenosphere
mesosphere
outer core
inner core

353
Q

Biogenic Chert

A

Microcyralline quartz made of shells from microorganisms (plankton)
Siliceous ooze in deep ocean, lakes

354
Q

how to become cation or anion

A

cation- lose electron, become more pos.
anion- gain electron, become more neg.

355
Q

Continental Collision- earthquake

A

Characterized by broad earthquakes zones that may generate deep, large earthquakes

356
Q

How can we use seismograms to find the epicenter of an earthquake?

A

Select 3 seismic station records and find P and S waves arrival times to determine the time between

Determine distance of epicenter to each station- radius of circle

Triangular epicenter location

357
Q

Inorganic Sedimentary Rocks - Inorganic Chert

A

Microcrysyalline quartz precipitated out of silica rich groundwater
Jasper, Flint, Onyx, Agate

358
Q

Lithification

A

Process which loose sediments become solid rock (cementation and compaction)

359
Q

protolith for quartzite

A

quartz rich sandstone

360
Q

Continental Rifts- Earthquake

A

Characterized by small-moderate magnitude earthquakes

361
Q

Lithostratigraphic

A

Use lithology to determine a similar age of strata

Comp and physical properties of the rocks or sediment

Beds, recognized by visual changes in color, grain size, or comp

Formations, basic division of identifying and correlating sedimentary strata

362
Q

what tectonic setting has no magma formation

A

continental collision
transform boundary

363
Q

covalent bonding

A

shares electrons

364
Q

Organic sedimentary rocks

A

formed from organic material (plants) to procue coal, oil, and natural gas

365
Q

What is the climatic significance of the Younger Dryas event?

A

One of most well-known examples of aberupt climate change

Weakening of ocean current my melting water- TRIGGERED RAPID COOLING

366
Q

High Viscosity

A

lava plies out- lower temp and MORE silica chains (felsic)

367
Q

Fossiliferous limestone

A

abundant visible fossiles (marine invertebrates)
Coral reefs, shallow ocean setting, lakes

368
Q

Intrusive igneous rocks

A

plutonic
magma solidifies BELOW the surgace
form various features called plutons

369
Q

How does Metamorphism occur

A

Change in temperature and pressure and depth

Cause existing minerals to be unstable at new conditions

Results in growth of new stable mineral

Change in comp and or texture WITHOUT melting – igneous

370
Q

Can earthquakes be predicted?

A

NO- but forecast is possible

371
Q

Major defining Characteristic of subduction

A

Convergent boundary
largest earthquakes and tsunami
deepest earthquakes appear

372
Q

Major defining Characteristic of Continental rift

A

volcanoes and earthquakes
broad and narrow rifts

373
Q

How do we know the cause of the current change in climate is anthropogenic and not due to increase in solar insolation or volcanic outgassing?

A

It is not increase in solar insolation because as lower atmosphere is warming, the upper atmosphere is not
Increase in GHG is not due to increase in volcanic activity

Atmospheric carbon isotope signature change
 Fossil fuel only source of carbon- consistent with the isotopic fingerprint of carbon present in today’s atmosphere
 Fossil fuel has 13C/12C; atmosphere has 14C
 13C/12C increased; 14C decreased

374
Q

Normal Faults- stress and plate tectonic

A

Tensional forces in the crust
Divergent Plate Boundaries

375
Q

Cenozoic- organisms known for

A

Mammals and grasses

376
Q

Transform Boundaries- earthquake

A

Characterized by moderate-to-large earthquakes, usually having a maximum —8

377
Q

Foliation

A

Refer to any planar metamorphic fabric where minerals are aligned/orientated to have lined up in planes

New minerals form

Common with abundant sheet silicate minerals
Slte, phyllite, schist, gneiss

378
Q

Ice cores dating

A

Ice core records from Greenland and Antarctica preserve thin layers produced from yearly seasonal cycles

Oldest ice core material- Antarctica- 800,000 years old

379
Q

Rapid Burial- fossil

A

Less time scavengers and other processes have to destroy/eat specimen

380
Q

What is the Greenhouse Effect- how does it work?

A

Natural phenomena involving greenhouse gases trapping heat emitted by Earth, warming the atmosphere

381
Q

relationship between grain type, cooling rate, and type of rock

A

Coarse grained- slower cooling- intrusive
FIne Grained- faster cooling- extrusive

382
Q

Principle of Fossil Succession

A

Systematic change of unitque fossils through time due to evolution

Fossils or assemblsage of fossils can be used to correlate rocks pf same age across wide geographic distribution

Fossils occur in a definite, determinavble order because evolition is linear

383
Q

What type of fault boundary is most likely to form a tsunami and why?

A

Subduction- on seafloor

384
Q

Distribution of plants, animals

A

Long term patterns in temperature and rainfall largely determine climate of region

Changes in their patterns impact distribution of plant and animals community

Pattern determine what crops and livestock can be supported too

385
Q

Earth’s Compision layers

A
  • Chemical Layers
    Crust, Mantle, Core
386
Q

Stratigraphic

A

Use stratigraphic relationships between strata that are located in distant geographical areas to determine which are the same age- matching sequence of rock formation

Geologist identify formation using geologic mapping and stratigraphic columns

387
Q

Where are the largest and deepest earthquakes expected to occur and why?

A

In Subduction Zone- due to subducting slabs- shallow to deep, small to large

388
Q

How is temperature and pressure involved in metamorphism?

A

Temperature
Heat driven metamorphism occurs at 200 and continues until 700-1100

Pressure
Force exerted over an area, stress= applied force
Strain is product of stress/metamorphic dchanges within minerals

389
Q

Magma compositions of shield volcanoes

A

low viscous
mafic magma chambers

390
Q

Aeolian

A

Continental - Wind-blown
Sand dragged along surface or briefly lifted- silt and clay blown away and carried long distances
Main sediment- very well sorted sant and silt
Main rock- sandstone
Main strucute- large cross beds
Main fossils- rare

391
Q

Why does regional metamorphism and fault metamorphism produce foliated, lineated textures?

A

lots of pressure

392
Q

How do geologists determine a regression or transgress occurred in the rock record of a stratigraphic section?

A

the Stacks of rocks- newer on top

393
Q

Bedding Planes

A

Sedimentary material or deposition in horizontal layers forming beds

Beds are bigger than 1 cm thick

Defined by differene in color, sediment size, and/or resistance to erosion

A different bed incidactes change in sediment deposition conditions

394
Q

Secondary Body Wave

A

Shears material up and down perpendicular to propagation

Second fastest wave

Does NOT travel through Liquid

395
Q

O-C subduction

A

ocean subducts under continental
on continent- mountain belt with volcano

396
Q

Magma Differentiation

A

process that changes magma’s chemistry towards a more felsic composition over time

fractionation and assimilation

397
Q

Stable oxygen isotopes

A

Oxygen isotopes record, measuring the ratio of O16 and O18

Oxygen isotope ratio

Colder times= less O16 in ocean water

398
Q

Casts or molds

A

Original material dissolves leaving cavity

399
Q

mid ocean ridge found is evidence of what

A

Plate tectonics

400
Q

Why do S-wave travel paths stop at the Mantle-Core boundary causing the S-wave shadow zone?

A

The Inner Core is liquid, S-Waves can not travel through liquid

Geology (8 decks)

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