Final Flashcards
The application of the principles of the natural sciences, especially biology and physiology
Biomedical Science
The group in an experiment where the independent variable being tested is not applied so that it may serve as a standard for comparison against the experimental group where the independent variable is applied
Control Group
The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
Dependent Variable
A research study conducted to determine the effect that one variable has upon another variable.
Experiment
The application of scientific knowledge to questions of civil and criminal law.
Forensic Science
Clear prediction of the anticipated results of an experiment.
Hypothesis
The variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher.
Independent variable
Control group where conditions produce a negative outcome. Negative control groups help identify outside influences which may be present that were not accounted for when the procedure was created
Negative Control
Specialized clothing or equipment, worn by an employee for protection against infectious materials (as defined by OSHA).
Personal Protective
Equipment
Group expected to have a positive result, allowing the researcher to show that the experimental set up was capable of producing results.
Positive Control
What causes death
The failure of one system can cause failure of the next ending in a lack of brain activity
What clues may be found at a scene of a mysterious death that may help to determine the cause of death?
Vomit, blood, fingerprints, DNA, saliva, bite marks, bullets, poison, etc
Medical doctor that primarily does autopsies and determines cause of death
Forensic Pathologist (Medical Examiner)
what is diabetes?
a disorder where you have high blood glucose levels and caused by insufficient insulin or the inability of insulin to function properly
what does the human body use to maintain homeostasis?
feedback mechanisms
what is the protein that regulates the the transfer of glucose into body cells?
insulin
What is type 1 diabetes?
diabetes of a form that usually develops during childhood or adolescence and is characterized by a severe deficiency of insulin, leading to high blood glucose levels (autoimmune disorder)
what is type 2 diabetes?
Diabetes of a form that develops especially in adults and most often obese individuals and that is characterized by high blood glucose resulting from impaired insulin utilization coupled with the body’s inability to compensate with increased insulin production (insulin resistance)
what is a feedback mechanism?
when one thing happens in response to another thing, like a chain reaction
what macromolecules does food contain?
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, which are broken down and reassembled for use in the human body
where is energy stored?
in chemical bonds of the macromolecules found in food
how does diabetes affect someone?
it affects their overall health and daily life
why is the heart considered a pump?
The heart is a pump because it moves a fluid (blood) using pressure (contractions of ventricles), the heart powers the whole cardiovascular system
what are the structures that make up the human heart?
chambers, valves, veins, arteries
What are the chambers of the heart?
open, like rooms - hold blood; right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle
what are the valves of the heart?
flaps, like doors - let blood move one way; tricuspid, bicuspid (mitral), aortic, and pulmonary
what are the veins of the heart?
bring blood to heart - tubes, like halls; superior and inferior vena cavas and pulmonary veins
what are the arteries of the heart?
carry blood from heart - tubes, like halls; pulmonary arteries
what is meant by the term tissue?
a group of cells that work together to do something
what are the different types of cardiac tissue?
myocardium, endocardium, pericardium
what does myocardium tissue do?
“muscle heart”; makes up thick muscle layer
what does endocardium tissue do?
“inside heart”; forms inner surface of chambers
what does pericardium tissue do?
“of heart”; sac that surrounds the heart
Why is blood classified as a tissue?
tissues are groups of cells that perform a similar function and have a common origin; blood transports materials throughout the body and is all made in the bone marrow
what is the study of tissues?
histology
what is the removal of tissues from the body?
biopsy
what are the characteristics and functions of red blood cells?
flat for increased SA, carry oxygen using hemoglobin protein, survive 4 months
what are the characteristics and functions of white blood cells?
fight diseases, part of immune system, a high count can indicate infection
what are the characteristics and functions of platelets?
flat an sticky, help blood clot, impaired by aspirin
in what way does blood directly relate to the respiratory system?
picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide at the alveoli
in what way does blood directly relate to the immune system?
circulates white blood cells and antibodies to fight disease
in what way does blood directly relate to the digestive system?
picks up nutrients from the small intestine and carries them to all other body tissues
in what way does blood directly relate to the urinary system?
carries cellular waste from all the body’s tissues to the kidneys, where it is filtered out and removed in the urine
why are most cells so small?
Cells must be small enough that materials coming IN can
absorb all the way IN and materials going OUT can escape
what will happen if cells get too big?
the cells will either starve to death or drown in their own waste
What does a sphygmomanometer measure and how is it used?
blood pressure, determines systolic and diastolic arterial pressure
what does and EKG measure and how is it used?
electricity within heart, electrodes on skin picks up current and show graphically
what are examples of positive feedback?
labor —-> until child is born
growth —-> until maturity
blood clotting —-> until clot form
what are examples of negative feedback?
temperature, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, hunger, sleep, shivering, or sweating
what is the role of insulin in our bodies?
let sugar into cells, and maintains homeostasis of blood sugar levels
what is insulin?
a hormone produced by the pancreas
how does insulin work?
- opens the door for glucose to enter the cells
- it stimulates the storing of glucose in the liver,the development of fat from excess carbohydrates, and the development of protein compounds in the body
What causes type 1 diabetes?
sugar can’t get into cells because the pancreas has stopped producing insulin
what causes type 2 diabetes?
sugar can’t get into cells because they’e become “insulin resistant” and no longer recognize recognize it as the “key”
(reversible IF lifestyle changes are made)
what is the current treatment for type 1 diabetes?
insulin - patients have the option of injections or an insulin pump
what is the current treatment for type 2 diabetes?
usually treated with lifestyle changes (exercise, limiting carbohydrates, etc), and oral medications; insulin may become necessary over time if condition worsens
what are the main structural components of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids?
they are all macromolecules because they are very large and consist of lots of atoms
what are the building blocks of carbohydrates?
monosaccharides
what are the building blocks of proteins?
amino acids
what are the building blocks of lipids?
hydrophilic heads & hydrophobic tails
(fatty acid chains)
what types of foods are carbohydrates?
grains, fruits,veggies, dairy, sweets
what types of foods are proteins?
meat, beans, nuts, eggs, dairy
what types of foods are lipids?
meat, oils, nuts, veggies, dairy
what is dehydration synthesis?
where macromolecules are built up in plants an animals, it’s how things like complex carbohydrates and proteins form
how does dehydration synthesis work?
as 2 molecules join to form one, they give off a water molecule; it’s how things grow, this requires ATP
what is hydrolysis?
the way macromolecules are broken down during digestion
how does hydrolysis work?
each water molecule can break one bond, breaking polymers down into monomers
what is an electrolyte?
fancy word for salt, needed for metabolism and muscle movement in small quantities
what is the role of a chemical bond in energy transfers?
energy is released when chemical bonds are broken in chemical reactions
what is a chemical reaction?
when a molecule forms from atoms coming together or when the bonds between the atoms are broken
what is the relationship between nutrients, food, chemical reactions, and energy?
food is made of nutrients and the nutrients are made of macromolecules, the molecules can be broken down through chemical reactions, giving off energy
why is water balance such an important factor in maintaining homeostasis?
water helps maintain homeostasis, keeping fluid levels constant in the body
are sports drinks a valuable tool in maintaining water balance?
sports drinks are really only useful for hardcore athletes, exercising for multiple hours day because they may need the carbs from the sugars in sports drinks to maintain their energy levels and may need the electrolytes to keep their muscles working
what causes sickle cell disease?
an abnormal type of hemoglobin which causes red blood cells to become shaped like crescents or sickles
how can sickle cell disease affect someone?
it can cause many health problems and affect daily life fro someone with the disease
how are proteins produced?
through the processes of transcription and translation
what can changes in the genetic material cause?
changes in the structure and function of a protein and consequently the traits of an organism
what do chromosomes do in the processes of mitosis and meiosis?
transfer genetic material from cell to cell as well as from generation to generation
how can the expression of a trait through the generations of a family be visualized?
using a pedigree
what is a punnet square?
a simple graphical way of discovering all the potential combinations of genotypes of an offspring and can be used to determine the percent chance of each genotype
what is human DNA
A unique code of over three billion base pairs that provides a genetic blueprint of an individual
What are chromosomes?
packaged DNA that each contain numerous genes, or segments of DNA sequence that code for traits
what makes DNA different from each other?
the differences in the sequence of the nucleotides
What do restriction enzymes do?
recognize and cut specific sequences in DNA
what does gel electrophoresis do?
separates DNA fragments based on size and is used in Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis
How do DNA, chromosomes, and genes relate?
chromosomes is made up of DNA and DNA is made up of genes
what is the structure of DNA?
double helix
what is a nucelotide made of?
sugar molecule, phosphate group, nitrogenous base
how do restriction enzymes cut DNA?
The restriction enzymes search the DNA strand for a part or sequence that matches the enzyme. It wraps around the DNA and cuts both strands at this point.
what organs make up the urinary system?
kidneys, ureter, bladder, urethra
what organs make up the nervous system?
brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs
what organs make up the endocrine system?
Pancreas, thymus, thyroid, pituitary, pineal gland, adrenal glands, ovaries/testes
What organs make up the digestive system?
Teeth/tongue, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), rectum, liver, gall bladder
what organs make up the respiratory system?
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, alveoli
what organs make up the cardiovascular system?
Atria, Ventricles, Veins, Venules, Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Erythrocytes
what organs make up the immune system?
Bone Marrow, Thymus, Spleen, Lymph Nodes, Tonsils, Leukocytes, Appendix
what is an example of what the urinary system does?
filters waste out of blood, removing cellular waste from all systems
what is an example of what the nervous system does?
tells other systems what to do via electrical signals
what is an example of what the endocrine system does?
secretes hormones that signal other systems to do things
what is an example of what the digestive system does?
absorbs nutrients (small intestine) to feed all other systems
what is an example of what the respiratory system does?
brings in oxygen needs by all cells and removes carbon dioxide waste
what is an example of what the cardiovascular system does?
transportation system ——> brings nutrients, hormones, O2 to all systems, carries waste away
what is an example of what the immune system does?
protects us by preventing, trapping, and killing pathogens
what is an example of what the skeletal system does?
provides structural support, protects soft organs, and makes blood cells
what does a medical examiner do in an autopsy?
opens up the body cavities, weighs and examines organ, and extracts fluid for a toxicologist to analyze
what does an autopsy do?
autopsies let medical examiners see things with their own eyes and are used to determine the cause of death
Why is confidentiality of patient information important?
everyone deserves privacy to prevent embarrassment and possible damage to relationships or loss of job
Who should keep patient information confidential?
Bio-medical scientists (EMTs, medical examiners, any kind of doctor, nurses, pharmacists, etc.) can be fired or sued or even lose their license for violating HIPPA.
Is there ever a time when patient confidentiality should be broken?
when there is a patient who is under 18, someone who signed a release form (for a spouse, etc, to have access), or in case of suspected abuse
What are chromosomes made of?
chromosome are tightly packages of DNA that each contain multiple genes
what is DNA?
DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid and is the 4th kind of macromolecule
where is DNA found?
it is found in the nucleus of the cells of living organism
does every cell in an organism have the same DNA?
every cell with a nucleus contains all the chromosomes of the individual and all the DNA; the tissues and cells look and have different functions because different genes are ‘turned on’ in each of the cells
how much DNA is in a single human cell?
a human genome is 46 chromosomes, with a total of 3 billion base pairs
how do cells get the oxygen they need for energy production?
erythrocytes contain a protein called hemoglobin; hemoglobin binds oxygen, picking it up from the alveoli and dropping it off in the capillary beds throughout the body’s tissue
what do normal red blood cells look like under a microscope?
normal red blood cells are round, but sort of flat in the middle
what is a gene?
a gene is a segment of a chromosome and is made of DNA
what is the connection between genes and proteins?
each gene codes for the production of one protein and each protein determines one trait
how are proteins produced in a cell?
through transcription and translation
what happens in the process of transcripton?
RNA polymerase transcribes the DNA in the nucleus of a cell, transcription factors unwind the DNA and allow the RNA polymerase to transcribe one strand of the DNA into a single strand of mRNA
what happens in the process of translation?
mRNA travels through the nuclear membrane to go to the cytoplasm, ribosomes in the cytoplasm translate the mRNA, using tRNA; each tRNA molecule brings one amino acid to the mRNA until a long string of amino acids forms, creating the primary structure of the protein
How does the sequence of nucleotides in DNA determine the sequence of amino acids in a protein?
the nucleotides in the DNA are transcribed into a complimentary string of mRNA; during translation, tRNA attaches the correct amino acid for each codon, each chain of amino acids formed is a protein
what is a mutation?
mutations are mistakes in the DNA code
why do some people have differently shaped red blood cells?
people with sickle cell anemia have red blood cells with an abnormal shape
what is sickle cell anemia?
a recessive genetic trait that must be inherited from both parents
what determines the shape of a protein?
what determines the shape of a protein?
what effect does the shape of the red blood cells have on the health of the individual?
they can still carry oxygen but they tend to get stuck in capillaries and make it difficult for blood to circulate to all the body’s tissues
what are symptoms of sickle cell anemia?
the primary symptom is pain, which is caused by lack of oxygen/nutrients to the body’s tissues
how does someone get sickle cell anemia?
they must inherit the recessive trait from both parents
what are examples of human diseases that are inherited?
cystic fibrosis, huntington’s disease, triple X syndrome, duchenne muscular dystrophy, down’s syndrome, cry of the cat, color blindness, hemophilia, etc
what is the human heart designed for?
to provide the force needed to transport blood to all the tissues of the body
what does the heart’s pulmonary circuit do?
pumps blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen
what does the heart’s systematic circuit do?
pumps oxygenated blood out to the tissues of the body
what is the heartbeat caused by?
the contraction of muscle cells and results in the movement of blood from the heart to the arteries and the rest of the body
what is blood pressure?
a measure of the force put on the vascular walls by the blood as it is pushed by the cardiac muscles through the blood vessels
what is the purpose of heart valves?
they function to keep blood moving in the proper direction
what is the purpose of arteries?
move blood away from the heart and veins carry blood back to the heart
what is cholesterol?
a lipid that is necessary for the proper functioning of cells and for maintaining a healthy body
how is cholesterol transported in the blood?
by protein complexes called HDL and LDL
what can a blocked coronary artery lead to?
tissue death causing a myocardial infarction or heart attack
what can increase a person’s risk of developing a heart disease?
genetics, poor diet, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking
are all fats the same?
all fats have hydrophilic heads and one or more hydrophobic tails (fatty acid chains); they are primarily carbon
chains, coated in hydrogen atoms, and have some oxygen atoms in the head; however, there are different kinds of
fats
what is cholesterol?
cholesterol is a lipid made in the liver of animals; it help form cell membranes and is found in all tissues, but especially nervous and fat tissue; it protects the skin and helps nerve cells function, it also helps detoxify the blood
why are so many foods advertised as non-fat and cholesterol-free?
humans do not need to consume cholesterol to be healthy; the human liver makes it; most humans take in to much cholesterol from their food, putting the health of their heart at risk
what is LDL?
low density lipoprotein (bad cholesterol), raises risk of heart disease; carry cholesterol through the blood to all tissues - if there’s too much it just stays in the blood
what is HDL?
high density lipoprotein (good cholesterol), lowers risk of heart disease; pick up cholesterol in the bloodstream and take it to the liver for removal from the body
what can lower cholesterol levels?
statin medication
how are LDL, HDL, and cholesterol related to heart disease?
HDL, LDL, and total cholesterol levels are highly correlated with risk of heart disease and heart attack; keeping levels healthy is a great way to protect the cardiovascular system
how do crime scene investigators get enough DNA evidence from a single droplet of blood?
they put the DNA through an amplification process call “PCR”
what is PCR?
PCR stands for polymerase chain reaction and is a way to take a small amount of DNA and amplify it to create a much larger sample size; PCR amplifies the DNA exponentially
how is DNA analyzed without sequencing it?
DNA can be analyzed through gel electrophoresis
can genetic diseases or disorders be diagnosed using a small blood or saliva sample from a patient?
yes, the DNA can be amplified and then run through electrophoresis
what is familial hypercholesterolemia?
“high cholesterol in the blood”; a dominant autosomal genetic disorder, the result of a mutation in DNA that is passed from parents to their offspring
what are infectious diseases caused by?
infectious agents
what are bacteria characterized by?
their shape, colony morphology, and metabolism, and reaction to the gram stain
what do the specific structures of the immune system do?
they function to protect the human body against foreign invaders
what are bacteria?
single-celled living organisms that are found all around us (and in us); they don’t have organelles or a nucleus, the way animal cells do
how do bacteria differ from one another?
Bacteria can be sorted into categories based on morphology or gram staining results; bacteria come in three different shapes — bacillus, spirilla, and cocci and either exist as single cells, in pairs in clumps or in strings
what three main things do scientists look for to tell bacteria apart?
color, shape, and colony type
do all bacteria cause disease?
99% of bacteria are not harmful and sometimes even beneficial; less than 1% of all bacteria varieties cause disease
what is the size of bacteria compared to the size of a human cell?
bacteria cells are much smaller than human cells; there about 70 trillion human cells in our bodies, but even more bacterial cells, so they are quite small
if bacteria are living cells, how do they reproduce?
bacteria typically reproduce asexually, where one cell doubles its DNA and then splits into 2
how are bacterial infections treated?
bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics unless they are antibiotic-resistant or there are no antibiotics available to treat them
what are antibiotics?
chemicals that attack/kill particular bacteria and are usually derived from other bacteria or from organisms like mold
can the same treatment be used for all bacterial infections?
some antibiotics are considered “broad spectrum” and can be used against many different bacteria; others are “narrow spectrum” and are only effective against a couple bacteria
what is antibiotic resistance?
when bacteria develop immunity to the antibiotic that would usually attack them; it is due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics
what is a virus?
an extremely small structure that causes disease
how do viruses reproduce and cause disease?
to reproduce , viruses must be inside a host cell; because viruses are non-living, their form of reproduction is often called “replication”
why is every cold we get a new disease?
every cold that we get is a new disease because once we’ve gotten a virus we develop antibodies to it and are no longer vulnerable to the exact virus again
why do epidemics of diseases caused by newly discovered viruses still occur?
over time, viruses mutate and the genetic material changes, that can make us vulnerable to the changed virus
what does the lymphatic system do?
protects the body against pathogens; there are three basic lines of defense: nonspecific external barriers, nonspecific internal barriers, specific barriers
how do pathogens enter the body?
breaks in the skin, mouth, ears, eyes, nose, genital, urinary, and anal openings
what is a specific immune response?
when lymphocytes respond to a particular pathogens in the body
what is the human body consumed of?
the human body is composed of multiple body systems working together to maintain good health
what do scientists need to make sure of?
what they present is accurate and is communicated in way that keeps interest and focus
what does determining the cause of death involve?
the investigation of many aspects of the medical condition of a victim, the internal and external examination of the body, and the chemical and microscopic analysis of tissues and body fluids
