Factors affecting training performance Flashcards
what is the alactatcid ATP/PC system
after movement, ATP forms ADP
creatine phosphate is broken down to form creatine and phosphate and when combined with ADP it forms ATP
what sport is the alactatcid ATP/PC system best suited for
due to the high speed of ATP production and the short duration of the fuel, ATP/PC is dominant for activities that require explosive muscular contractions over short times such as;
- 100m sprint
- discus
- javelin
- high jump
The ATP/PC ATP production is
- very fast
- lasts for a very short time
- limited store of fuel
duration the ATP/PC can operate for + cause of fatigue
- fuel will be depleted in 8-12 seconds
- -> creatine phosphate can be fully restored within 2 minutes (30sec-2minutes)
- near maximal effort, fatigue is caused by inability to continually resynthesises ADP from CP because CP is quickly exhausted
- -> why we are unable to run at maximal effort for longer than 100m
what is the lactic acid system
after 8-12 seconds of maximal exercise and Cp supplies are exhausted, ATP will still need to produce energy where sufficient oxygen is not available for longer duration sports. the body needs a different fuel such as immediate sugar levels (glucose) that are circulating in the blood, liver and muscles
- excess glucose stored in liver or muscle is called glycogen
- process of using glycogen or glucose as fuel is called glycolysis
what sport best suits the lactic acid system
- 200-400m run
- 50-100m swim
- tennis : running back and forth with small breaks in between
- rugby league : repeated tackles
- soccer : full-back going forward in an attack and backwards in a retreat
the lactic acid production is
- very fast productions
- lasts for short duration
provides ATP quickly but with high quantities of glucose
E.g. 3 moles of ATP is generated from the breakdown of 180 grams of glycogen during anaerobic glcolysis
duration lactic acid can operate for
30seconds - 3minutes
cause of fatigue in lactic acid system
when lactic acid levels build up within muscle cells. it is caused by the rate of lactic removal because it is accumulated quicker than it can be removed
- high levels of lactic acid can cause deterioration in performance but moderate ones enhance performance as lactic acid is a source of fuel
lactic acid = lactic ion (lactate) and hydrogen ion
–> hydrogen is the acid part that impairs body from performing
–> lactate is fast fuel because it is easy to remove from blood
process of recovery + rate of recovery for lactic acid
ROR : 30-60mins
post exercise : lactic acid diffuses from muscle into bloodstream, where in the liver it is reconverted into glycogen and can be used again as fuel
what is aerobic system
physical activity which lasts longer than a minute requires the presence of oxygen-rich blood to continue muscular contractions
–> called aerobic metabolism because glucose (carbohydrates, sugar) and fat (sometimes protein) is broken down in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP
sports best suited for aerobic systems
- marathon runners
- cycling
- triathlons
- netball, soccer, rugby
the aerobic energy production is
- very efficient
- produces many ATP for long time
E.g. able to produce 39 moles of ATP with 180grams of glycogen
duration aerobic energy system can operate for
60 min +
- elite athletes are able to mix carbohydrates and fat in endurance events (this is called glycogen sparing) which results in fat being used earlier so that glycogen can be available later for potential sprints at the end
source of fuel for ATP/PC, lactic and aerobic
ATP/PC : ADP + PC
lactic acid : carbohydrates
aerobic : carbohydrates, fats, protein
cause of fatigue in aerobic system
- decrease of blood glucose and muscle glycogen
- when there is an exhaustion of carbohydrates and fat becomes the predominant fuel, it is called ‘hitting the wall’
fatigue happens because fat requires more oxygen for metabolism of energy
–> increases temperature + respiratory rate for athletes
cause of fatigue in aerobic system
- decrease of blood glucose and muscle glycogen
- when there is an exhaustion of carbohydrates and fat becomes the predominant fuel, it is called ‘hitting the wall’
fatigue happens because fat requires more oxygen for metabolism of energy
–> increases temperature + respiratory rate for athletes
process of recovery for aerobic system
ROR : 12-48 hours
restoring of fuels + aerobic glycolysis
what are the principles of training
- progressive overload
- specificity
- variety
- reversibility
- training threshold
- warm-up cool-down
what is progressive overload
the gains in adaptation occurs only when training load is greater than normal and becomes progressively increased as improvement in fitness occurs. as the body becomes familiar with a particular of level training stress, it adapts to it and further training at the same level will fail to sufficiently stress the system
progressive overload in endurance programs
the load should be small and adaptations will take place slowly
progressive overload in flexibility training
fastest gains are made in loads that produce small adaptations
progressive overload in strength training
loads need to be less for peak development but adaptations or more significatn
how is progressive overload impactful on aerobic training
it is evident in hearts ability to pump more blood to working muscles (increased cardiac output) and the ability of working muscles to take up more oxygen as it is delivered to cells (increased oxygen uptake)
how is progressive overload impactful to strength training
results in an increase of cross-sectional area of muscle (muscle hypertrophy)
what is specificity
implies that greatest gains are made when activity in training program resembles the movements in the game, because the body will adapt to stress in a targeted specific way
what is metabolic specificity
identifying the energy system that is most effective for activity which is best determined through the assessment of the intensity and duration of event
what is muscle group specificity
muscle groups used in performance needs to be the same muscle group trained during training
- this is because the body will ‘recruit’ the type of muscle fibres most suitable for the task
E.g. 100m sprint, white fibres (fast-twitch) are required to adapt the most
what is training specificity
components of fitness required in games should closely resemble those developed during training
E.g. centre in netball needs to make short sharp movements therefore, training needs to be specific to building agility, reaction time, power and coordination
what is reversibility
lack of training causes the opposite to occur, referred to as ‘detraining effect’
reversibility in aerobic training
ability of working muscles to use oxygen being delivered in blood is reduced if training is stopped
- losses are generally slower than flexibility or strength
reversibility in flexibility
elasticity is lost quickly if stretching programs are not carried out on a regular basis
what is variety
when using same drills and routines every session, fitness development will not be productive as repetition leads to boredom
E.g. it is not necessary for a footballer to pass, tackle and practice tactics every training as general strength, endurance and power can be more efficiently developed through swimming, plyometrics and resistance programs
what is training thresholds
refers to the specific point (level of intensity) that, when passed, takes a person to a new level
how are training thresholds developed
determined by work intensity which is calculated by MHR - age
what is the aerobic training zone
working above aerobic but below anaerobic training threshold
what is the anaerobic training threshold
reflects the balance between lactate entry and removal from blood if exercise intensity increases after lactate inflection point is reached, blood lactate concentration decreases
- it is when the creation of lactic acid which permeates to the muscle cells
what is purpose of warm-up
it should be sustained for 10 minutes and 30 for elite athletes
- reduce risk of injury or soreness by increasing joint mobility and muscle stretch
- increase body temperature and enzyme activity to promote faster and more powerful muscles
- stimulates cardiovascular system
what is the purpose of cool-down
- minimise muscle stiffness
cool down helps disperse and metabolise lactic acid concentration and replenish the body’s energy
what are recovery strategies
ensure that the athlete is able to resume normal training, overcome injuries, remove lactic acid build up, reduce soreness within the span of the training program. it is when the body rests it involves ; - physiological - neural - tissue damage - psychological
what is short-term recovery
refers to the period of time immediately after a game/training
- -> requires cool down following training with low intensity to promote soft tissue repair and disperse lactic acid
- -> replacement of fluids + energy supplies
what is long-term recovery
refers to the period between competition or following periods of peaking where the body needs rest
–> annual plan
E.g. rugby league footballers having an extended break from training after grand final
–> healthy eating practices and avoidance of weight gain
what is physiological strategies
helps body and its system to carry out normal function by improving the removal of metabolic by-products + a more nutritional plan to replace lost fluid and energy rich nutrients
- cool down
- hydration
what is purpose of cool down
cool down allows for heart rate and metabolism to gradually reduce at pre-exercise state. this allows;
- ventilation rate to return to normal
- blood distribution to return to normal
- adrenaline levels to return to normal
- accelerates body capacity to decrease lactic acid levels in muscles –> reduce muscle soreness and possible delay onset soreness
example of cool-down
5-10 minutes of walking/jogging/slow swimming with the aim to slowly reduce the body to pre-exercise temperature
–> static stretching is effective way to cool-down
muscle fibres involved with exercise tend to shorten and may lose alignment as a result of exercise and static stretching assists in lengthening, relaxing and re-aligning muscle fibres
what is purpose of hydration
- accelerates the return to pre-performance hydration levels and thus prepares the athlete for the next performance
- increases volume of blood in body, assisting the removal of waste products
- allows for the body to restore glycogen stores in preparation for next performance
it is recommended to drink 600ml for every 500ml lost
what type of fluids are recommended during hydration
- fruit juice
- milk
- energy drinks
potential to replace range of nutrients including carbohydrates, vitamins and potassium
characteristics of dehydration
- increased pulse rate
- increased core temperature
- decreased blood pressure
- gradual decline in circulatory functions
what is neural strategies
focus on the nervous system by releasing tension, soreness and pressure
- hydrotherapy
- massage
it aims to relax the muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise
what is hydrotherapy (neural strategies)
water based recovery , which can include hot or cold water, contrast water therapy to soothe pain and assist in metabolic recovery
- water provides support for movements, and eliminate jarring and straining movements
hydrotherapy : hot water immersions (neural strategies)
causes dilation (widening) of blood vessels and as temperature increases, blood flows more freely to limb, lowering blood pressure and enhancing the removal of waste
hydrotherapy : cold water immersion (neural strategies)
causes blood extremities to reduce occurs due to decreased heart rate and constriction of blood vessels in response to sudden drops in temperature
- aims to decrease core temp + soreness + swelling
hydrotherapy : contrast water therapy (neural strategies)
the alternation of hot and cold water immersions
- athletes will move between pools and showers to enhance the cycle of blood vessel dilation/constriction which will increase blood mobility through tissues
- -> rapid dispersal of waste + reduces soreness and promotes faster recovery
what is massage (neural strategies)
involves the manipulation of muscle to increase blood flow to muscles
–> allows for the reduction of muscle soreness and tension + increase relaxation
perceived that they remove lactate + release tension
what is tissue damage strategies
aim to speed up recovery by restoring damaged tissues, particularly the muscles
- cryotherapy
what is cryotherapy (tissue damage strategies)
is the use of cold temperatures to treat tissue damage by decreasing body temperature, blood flow, swelling and soreness
- ice packs
- cold water immersions
- cryogenic chambers
use of ice packs (tissue damage strategies)
placed on site of soft tissue injuries to assist in recovery
- apply in the first 48 hours after injury to decrease the temperature of the area, allowing for a decrease in inflammation + prevention of build up of waste
this is important as inflammation can cause secondary damage if not treated
use of ice packs (tissue damage strategies)
placed on site of soft tissue injuries to assist in recovery
- apply in the first 48 hours after injury to decrease the temperature of the area, allowing for a decrease in inflammation + prevention of build up of waste
this is important as inflammation can cause secondary damage if not treated
what is the ICER principle (tissue damage strategies)
used in rehabilitation on soft tissue without rest whether athlete has sustained injury or not
E.g. athlete uses damp cloth with ice in it. it is applied off on and for 10 minute intervals for 40 minutes. then compression, elevation and rest are used to enhance recuperation
what is cold water immersion (tissue damage strategies)
aims to decrease the body temperature. it involves the athlete being submersed in water that 4-12 degrees for 3-5 minutes at a time with short rest periods out of the water before re-submersions. often 4-5 times
what is the benefit of cold water immersions (tissue damage strategies)
- less pain after short periods of cold water immersions but repeated use can actually impair performance
it contracts blood vessels, decreasing the diameter and then to enlarge after coming out of water which allows for fresh, oxygen-rich blood to flow into the muscles, stimulating recovery
what are cryogenic chambers (tissue damage strategies)
reduce the body’s temperature using bursts of nitrogenous gas every 30 seconds. the chamber is cooled to -100 degrees and athlete exposes themselves to chamber for a short period of time of 90-3 minutes
- release endorphins which relieve pain
what are psychological strategies
focuses on the mind and the mindset of the athlete to assist them with recovery from activity
- a positive or negative outcome can impact the athletes motivation, anxiety and arousal for the next performance
- -> relaxation
- -> sleep
- -> post-performance evaluation
what is relaxation (psychological strategy)
used to reset mind and body, helps control level of anxiety and arousal and allows body to recover due to rest from physical activities
–> used to reflect on past season and prepare for upcoming seasons
what is motivation
it is an internal state which activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a goal. it is a force that can be manipulated to help athlete achieve their full potential
it is what drives the athlete, train each day, improve and perform at full potential
what is positive motivation
the desire to experience and then continue to experience the rewards of achieving a successful outcome
- relies on continual self reinforcement or reinforcement from others
it can be achieved through;
- providing incentives
- developing personal progress charts
- recognising achievements
- handling mistakes constructively
what is negative motivation
the desire to avoid being penalised of an unsuccessful outcome
- causes athletes to avoid failure in fear of negative reactions
what is an example of negative motivations
coach drops player to a lower grade if they fail to perform
what is bad about negative motivations
- lack of creativity
- fear of risk taking
- ‘choking; in high pressure situation as a result of fear of failure
long-term : - destructive on confidence
- destruction on initiative self
what is intrinsic motivation
comes from the individual. athlete is motivated to perform due to their own thoughts, needs and beliefs
- to satisfy competitive urge
- enjoyment
- achieve goals
- surpass personal best
it is characterised by high levels of concentration and when the zone is performed, performance is maintained without conscious effort
why is intrinsic motivation preferred
it is a personal reward and self-satisfactions are stronger driving force than anything imposed from outside
it is self propelling that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in the task
what is extrinsic motivation
focuses on what can be gained and on the product. effort and the desire for achievement is influenced by the expectation of an outside reward or fear of punishment
E.g. trophies, money and recognition
what is anxiety
sourced internally, therefore psychological, it is the result from a stimuli caused by the reaction to a threat
- disrupts and unsettles behaviour by lowering individuals concentration levels which affect muscular control
- -> unpredictable + uncertainty can trigger an athletes self-perceived ability
- trait + state axiety
what is state anxiety
anxiety brought on by particular activity, characterised by heightened emotions
- state of situation in which athlete is performing in
E.g. pressure moments
what is trait anxiety
refers to a characteristic of a person
- varies accordingly to how individuals condition themselves to respond to and manage the stress
what are sources of stress
associated with feeling pressure but can be beneficial in small amounts to improve performance. it can cause;
- increase blood supply to skeletal muscles
- increased breathing
- increased blood glucose levels
- increased sweat production
what is arousal
it is a physiological process and necessary in sport performance, although depending on the level and specific skill or task component, it can either facilitate or hinder performance
what is optimal arousal
arousal when controlled and at optimal levels can improve performance.
optimal arousal is the point which athletes are exposed to arousal that benefit performance
it varies from tasks that require different muscle groups such as archery + golf and rugby
under arousal
100m sprint may complete run in bad time if arousal levels are low, perhaps resulted from distractions or depressed levels of motivation + lethargy may lead to; - lack of motivation - disinterest - poor concentration - inability to cope with distractions
what are arousal raisers
- increasing voice intensity
- loud noise e.g. clapping/cheering
- hand gestures e.g. thumbs up
- physical activity
- introduction to crowd
examples of arousal depressors
- focus on performance rather than outcome
- task familiarity
- consistent routine
- calming techniques
example of differing optimal arousal
archery + golf levels of arousal don’t need high to be optimal
however skills that may be easier to execute that involves large body movements (e.g. running + weightlifting) requires increase levels of arousal to be optimal
what does optimal arousal largely depend on
individuals personality + factors that include;
- self expectation
- expectations of others
- experience
- financial expectations
- level of competition
- degree of difficulty
- skill finness
over arousal
over arousal results in athlete unable to perform required performance with precision because they are excessively tense and unable to concentrate
- it can be characterised by anxiousness or apprehension, reflecting excessive concern about performance
- -> leads to muscular tension and possibly mental confusion
what is cognitive stage
at this stage, athletes make errors which are frequent and often large
coaches need to avoid “information overload” which could confuse learner
- learners will make mistakes, awkwardness and some disorientation which is why it is important for them to receive feedback
what to do if cognitive learner experiences difficulty
skills can be broken down into smaller movements for practice
- drills are often reinforced to improve learners coordination and feel for the desired movements
what is the requirements of the cognitive stage
the fundamental requirement in this stage is that the athlete gains an understanding of the task required which involves;
- knowing what to do and an insight about how to
- conceptualism of the ability to generate a clear mental picture of task
- demonstrations, pictures, videos and instruction can highlight teaching points for learners
what is associative stage
athletes experience success with a decreasing number of errors. learner has identified what the skill is, needs to repeat the movement to enhance synchronisation of their mind and muscles
what are the requirements of associative stage
athletes are able to understand the principles and mechanics of the movement required and begins to learn anticipation
- able to identify errors and at times correct themselves
- skills may be executed but not to the speed or distance required
e. g. basketball player develops ability to dribble ball from right to left but unable to dribble the speed of elite athletes
what is the autonomous stage
athletes make occasional errors, which can be identified by the athlete themselves and at times adjusted mid-performance
E.g. diving
the most important feature is their ability to attend to other cues while giving little thoughts to how to perform their skill
E.g. netball, the problem will not be how to pass the ball but who to pass it to and what type of pass considering the position of the defence
–> less concentration needed and athlete can focus more on strategy + tactics
what is autonomous stage categorised as
looking automatic and consistent
- athlete has consolidated many discrete skills (subroutines)
- movement is fluent as subroutines sequence blend, referred as temporal patterning
- -> the movement looks good because it is efficient with the muscle groups and is working in order and producing only necessary movements required
what are the characteristics of skilled performers
- kinaesthetic sense
- anticipation and timing
- consistency
- technique
what is kinaesthetic sense
refers to the ability to make adjustments during performance, usually as a result of internal feedback
- performers have an awareness of their body position and muscle movement to allow a change and improvements in performance
what is an example of kinaesthetic sense
basketball : adjusting their shot after being fouled to ensure the shot still is successful
what is anticipation and timing
ability to predict what is likely to occur
predicting movements from their opponents or team members mean that they are able to respond appropriately in the required time to successfully execute skills required
example of anticipating and timing
tennis player anticipates a backhand down the line after reading body position of their opponent
what is consistency
ability to perform skills at a high standard for a regular basis
they will continue to execute skills at high levels as the difficulty of their opponent increases as well
be more consistent as they fatigue compared a performer who is not skilled
what is technique
ability to perform movements that are safe, efficient and effective
–> important in developing strategies and tactics as they are not focused on the execution of the skill
this also contributes to the decrease of injuries throughout seasons
what are objective performance measures
these are measures recorded using instruments such as measuring tapes or stop watches making data more credible by eliminating guesswork
a completely objective measurement occurs when judges apply the same criteria to measure performance and do not need to interpret information
example of highly objective measuring
high jump events : same measuring scale is used to determine height jumped
running events : speed measurements using stop watches or electronic timing, or distance measurements provide reliable information because devices are accurate
example of slightly objective measuring
team sports : need to be appraised by competent officials
what are subjective measurements
where measurement is not part of the process of gathering information, assessment of performance tends to be subjective and less accurate
- based on individuals judgement and opinions
example of subjectivity
- the offence scored as a result of poor positional play by defence
- the floor routine of the gymnast lacked creativity
validity meaning
determining the strength of a relationship between a performance component and a test designed to assess the component
what is reliability
degree of consistency of a test - the ability of the test and tester to produce the same results on successive occasions
- involves maintaining the same test conditions with same equipment/resource
personal and prescribed criteria
sports which have higher subjective elements often have criteria which are used to measure performance
E.g. diving and gymnastics
it refers to the standard or qualities that are used for judging the value of a performance
there is;
- personal judging criteria
- prescribed judging criteria
what is personal judging criteria
based on individuals idea and expectations about how a performance should be measured
- frequently used by coaches when they select a team
- spectators use personal judging when they evaluate dance performances
they are commonly used in early stages of skill acquisition
what is prescribed judging criteria
developed by a governing body for the particular sport, they identify components of skill execution which should be identified
- standardised interpretation of performance which adjusts the subjectivity to be more objective
prescribed criteria instruments
- checklist
- rating scales
- degree of difficulty charts
what are the types of training
- aerobic training
- anaerobic training
- flexibility training
- strength training
what is aerobic training
involves training which increases efficiency of aerobic energy system - the ability to deliver oxygen through the body
- continuous (uniform)
- aerobic interval
- fartlek
- circuit
how does aerobic training affect performance
- increases ability to perform for longer (bc of higher VO2 Max)
- enables athletes to ‘surge’ within continuous activity
- develop muscular endurance due to increased capacity to carry O2 to working muscles and increased blood volumes
what is continuous training (aerobic training)
when athlete performs the same activity at the same intensity for a specified duration
E.g. running at a set speed on a flat track OR riding an exercise bike at a set intensity
best suited for sports where intensity does not change (70-85% MHR) very much and same activity is often repeated throughout competition
–> marathons, long distance rowing or swimming
what is aerobic interval training
involves a single activity with specified changes in intensity at specific times or lengths within the session
these changes will alternate between two sets intensities and generally have a longer duration at higher intensity than lower
E.g. 1500m at 80% MHR and then jogging 400 at 40% MHR, repeated 5 times
what is aerobic interval training best suited for
sports where there are extended periods of work, followed by a form of rest before further exertion required
E.g. basketball or netball
what is fartlek training
fartlek is a combination of continuous training and interval training
involves continuous effort with periods of high-intensity, followed by a recovery period
- burst of speed are usually 5-10 sec and repeated every 2-3 min
- usually performed over undulating terrain (up or down hill) and less formalised
what is circuit training
various activities that are normally done for a set time before moving onto the next activity. intensity during circuit can stay the same or vary
E.g. 5 min on bike at 70% MHR, swimming for 5 min at 75% MHR, cross trainer for 5 min at 80% MHR and 5 min on rower at 75% MHR
what is anaerobic training
utilises the ATP/PC and lactic acid system
it is training activities that require maximum effort for less than 2-3 minutes, where oxygen is not a limiting factor
- rest periods are longer than those of aerobic training
what sports best suit anaerobic training
- athletic field events
- weightlifting
- sprints
- tennis
- rugby
- netball
how does anaerobic training affect performance
- increases muscular strength and efficiency of ATP/PC or lactic system
- improves acceleration speed and change of direction
- increase amount of times an athlete can repeat powerful move - capacity to exert force/power
short interval will be used to develop lactic acid system
interval is shortened and rest period prolonged, the focus is on ATP/PC
example of anaerobic training
higher intensity is performed for a shorter period of time than lower intensity compared to aerobic training
E.g. 100m sprints followed by 100m jog OR 2 min sprint followed by 1 min walk
what is flexibility training
ability of the joints to bend, stretch and twist through a range of movement without injury
- static stretching
- ballistic stretching
- PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
- dynamic stretching
why is flexibility important
- prevents injuries and muscular soreness - provides less tension in muscles –> faster recovery
- improving mechanical efficiency
- increasing ability of muscle to stretch - allowing for completion of challenging movements
- improving muscular coordination
- improving muscular relaxation
what is static stretching
involves lengthening the muscle for 10-30 sec, making sure stretch is felt
- safe because it is slow and sustained
what is ballistic stretching
involves bouncing when extended
- damaging to muscle and is performed only when ballistic or explosive movements are required + after extensive prior stretching
what is PNF
involves static stretch (30sec) followed by a contraction stretch until it is no longer felt (5-10sec) then further static stretching (10sec)
what is dynamic stretching
involves gentle repetition of types of movements that will be experienced in performance
what is strength training
ability of the muscle to exert force
- free/fixed weights
- elastics
- hydraulics
what does strength training do
- allows for muscle hypertrophy in specific muscle groups
- increases muscular power + endurance
- increases speed
- improves techniques due to increased muscle hypertrophy of muscles around joints
- decreases injury due to improved body composition and skeletal support
what is free/fixed weights
involves lifting a certain weight against gravity to train specific muscles
aimed at developing major muscles but also minor to stabilise movement
- uses dumbbells, barbells and weight plates
–> suited for rugby/NFL or shot put
what are elastics
involves various forms of elastic to provide the resistance to develop strength
- intensity is limited and resistance increases as the elastic is stretched
–> often used in rehabilitation for weaker muscles
suited for sports that use smaller muscle groups;
- javelin
- darts
what are elastics
involves various forms of elastic to provide the resistance to develop strength
- intensity is limited and resistance increases as the elastic is stretched
–> often used in rehabilitation for weaker muscles
suited for sports that use smaller muscle groups;
- javelin
- darts
what are hydraulics
use of machines that use water or air compression to provide resistance throughout a movement
- increases the resistance the faster the movement is executed
suits sport that require fast movement through a resistance
–> rugby league, swimming and martial arts
strength training table
heavy weights 2-6 repetitions 3-5 sets slow to medium speed 3-5 mins rest
power training table
heavy weights 2-10 reps 3-8 sets fast speed 3-5 min rest
endurance training table
light-medium weights 15+ reps 2-3 sets medium speed 1-3 min rest
lean body mass training table
medium-heavy weights 6-10 reps 3-10 sets slow-medium speed 1-3 min rest
what is resting heart rate
number of times heart beats per min
lower resting heart rate allows for more blood to be pumped every min, thus more oxygen travelling through body
- mainly caused by increase in stroke volume
what is stroke volume
amount of blood the heart is able to pump per stroke (from left ventricle)
- untrained person can push out 15-20L of blood per min and trained can push 22-30L
how blood is pumped out
left ventricle is filled more during diastole phase (heart fills with blood) and then enters systole phase (heart contracts to send out)
what is cardiac output
amount of blood that heart can pump per min
heart rate x stroke volume
what is oxygen uptake
amount of oxygen an individual is able to consume per kilo of body weight
- increases due to increased numbers of oxidative enzymes + blood volumes + increased myoglobin and haemoglobin
what is lung capacity
amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled in one breath
what is haemoglobin levels
protein found in red blood cells that bind with oxygen from the lungs to the body’s tissue
–> increased oxygen carrying capacity
what is muscle hypertrophy
growth of muscular tissue, increase in muscle diameter however length stays the same
- actual growth occurs at rest as the body is repairing through cellular process of fusing muscle fibres together to from new muscle protein strands
- -> due to growth in fast/slow twitch muscle fibres
what are slow twitch fibres
contains a large number of capillaries and produce large amounts of ATP slowly
–> endurance sports
–> red colour
increases due to;
- growth + repair of fibres following resistance training (high rep, low load)
- increased glycogen stires
colours of muscle fibres
- red fast FO
- red slow SO
- white fast FG
what are fast twitch muscle fibres
contains few capillaries and rapidly generates ATP anaerobically
–> suited for short events
increases due to;
- growth + repair of fibres following resistance training
–> increased enzyme for glycolysis + PC storage
what are psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety
- concentration / attentions skills
- mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery
- relaxation techniques
- goal setting
what is concentration / attention skills
this refers to an athletes focusing on doing, rather than how to do it
- focus can be improved by blocking out distractions and using positive self-talk
- the more athletes focus on completing the skill with the correct technique, the better their focus and the better their skill execution will be
what is mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery
concepts of trying to mentally visualise movement in athletes mind
E.g. in football, to visualise the sounds, colours, movements, defenders etc which will present when the actual skill is executed
AND basketball players will visualise their free throws before taking it
this will enhance motivation and decrease anxiety by creating familiar environments
what are relaxation techniques
used to assist in the control of physical response to stress and anxiety - slow deep breathing helps overcome fast breathing - stretching muscles overcome muscle tightness - cool towel decreases body temp and sweat
what is goal setting
helps improve an athletes motivation and enables them to measure progress. goals can be either performance or behaviour orientated and can be both long/short term
- goals need to be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant and time specific (SMART)
nutritional considerations
- pre performance
- during performance
- post performance
hydration during pre-performance
- 2-3L of water prior to the day
- 500mL of water hours before comp
- 250mL of water 30 min before comp
carbohydrate loading pre-performance
- increase carb loading consumption in days leading up to performance to increase glycogen stores
- endurance athletes often taper to allow carbohydrate loading without having to consume excess foods
- high in carbs but low in fat
pre-performance meals
- usually consumed 3-4 hours prior to performance –> light meals familiar to athlete
- -> top up on glycogen stores
what are carbohydrate loading
process to ensure glycogen stores in muscle and liver are at their maximum prior to endurance performance
- done by tapering training levels and consuming large amounts of complex carbohydrate a week before competition
- -> should be implemented at least 72 hours prior
fluid replacement in during-performance
- frequent sips 200-300mL every 15min
sports drink during-performance
- beneficial for activities lasting 30-60min
- contains 4-8% carbohydrates
hydration at post performance
- 200-300mL every 15min
- fluids should be replaced in first hour after activity
glycogen stores during post-performance
Hi Gl (glycemic loads) food immediate + complex carbohydrates within 1-2 hours after completion - continue to refuel 24-28 hours after comp
dietary requirements for footballers
- players will need 5-8 grams carbohydrate per kg of body weight a day
pre-performance : eat high carb food 2-4 hours prior + light carb 1-2 hours prior
post-performance : recovery meals contains carbs + proteins + fluids within 1 hr after comp
vitamins and minerals
are only necessary for athletes who have deficiencies as excess vitamins and minerals get excreted
what does vitamin b do
- optimise energy production
- build and repair of muscle tissue
- red blood cell production
vitamin C and E (antioxidants)
- increased exercise increases oxygen and oxidative damage
- protects cell membrane from oxidative damage
vitamin d
- calcium absorption
- promotes bone health
- regulates homeostasis of nervous system and skeletal muscle
iron
allows for transportation of oxygen around body and muscle
calcium
- bone repair, growth and development
- nerve conduction and muscle contraction
zinc
- growth and repair of skeletal muscle tissue
magnesium
- essential for glycolysis (energy production)
- essential for muscle contractions
sodium, chloride, potassium
neural transmission
protein
- growth and repair of muscles and body tissues
- can be used as fuel
insufficient protein
- slow recovery
- loss of muscle mass
- reduced immunity
caffeine
blocks adenosine to brain, improving athletes perception of fatigue and increase alertness
- -> benefits are short term
- -> benefit endurance sports
creatine products
natural organic acid which assists in replenishing ATP/PC stores in muscles
–> benefits strength + power activities for short duration and high intensity
characteristics of a learner
- personality
- heredity
- confidence
- prior experience
- ability
the learning environment
- nature of the skill
- the performance element
- practice methods
- feedback
what is open skill (nature of the skill)
takes place where the environment is unpredictable and ever changing
needs to be adapted in response to opponent, the environment, the learners team
–> externally paced
E.g. weather affects the kicking of a goal
what is closed skills (nature of the skill)
takes place when circumstances are predictable and constant
–> usually self-paced
E.g. 10 pin bowling + weightlifting
gross motor skills (nature of the skill)
involves large muscle groups
E.g. legs, arms and torso
fine motor skills (nature of the skill)
- involves smaller muscle groups
E.g. hands + feet
discrete (nature of the skill)
have distinct beginning and end
E.g. cartwheel
serial skills (nature of the skill)
involves sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a whole skill
E.g. hitting a golf ball
continuous skills
have no distinct beginning or end
E.g. jogging
the performance element
- athlete centred approach
- decision making
- strategic and tactical development
- game sense approach
athlete centred approach (the performance element)
enhances athletes ability to make decisions it
decision making (the performance element)
happens during performance
–> improved by demonstrations
strategic development (the performance element)
- refers to the way we play, where we should be at a particular time
E.g. return the ball in tennis using back-hand
tactical awareness (the performance element)
utilising ways of gaining an advantage
E.g. using cut-out pass in rugby or ‘double teaming’[ an opponent in basketball
game sense approach :
enables learners to develop decision-making, strategy and tactics which allow coach to focus on athlete centred approach
–> encourages learners to take roles that require active thinking + decision making
practiced methods
- massed or distributed
- whole
what is massed (practiced methods)
involves long practice sessions broken up by smaller rest periods
suitable for;
- continuous skills
- endurance athletes
distributed practice (practiced methods)
shortened periods of practice with longer rest periods
–> increased opportunities for feedback
suitable for;
- cognitive learners
- mastering skills which are physically fatiguing
whole practice (practiced methods)
involves learner learning skills as a complete movement suitable for; - discrete and continuous skills E.g. archery + swimming - autonomous learners
part practice (practiced methods)
skills are broken down into sub-routines to allow each section to be practiced individually before combined to execute the whole skill
suitable for;
- cognitive learners
- learning complex skills
E.g. basketball layup, shot on goal in hockey or soccer
how can overtraining be recognised
when overtrained, athletes are often characterised with
- Onset of technique changes and errors
- inability to finish training sessions
- Weight loss
- Occurrence of overuse injuries
- lack of motivation and poorer performance
- increasing heart rate
what can lead to overtraining
sometimes because of poor scheduling or high levels of dedication, an athlete can experience chronic stress which can lead to performance deterioration. recognised as early stages of staleness which can lead to overtraining;
- weekly competitions
- intensive and long training
- poor recovery
- high training when fatigued
physiological considerations to avoid overtraining
- lethargy
- injuries
