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AS Biology > F212 Health And Disease > Flashcards

F212 Health And Disease Flashcards

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0
Q

Disease

Definition

A

A departure from good health caused by a malfunction of the mind or body

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1
Q

Health

Definition

A

A state of mental, physical and social well being, not just the absence of disease

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2
Q

Pathogen

Definition

A

An organism that a uses disease

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3
Q

Parasite

Definition

A

An organism that lives on or inside a host organism causing harm to its host

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4
Q

Transmission

Definition

A

The way in which a parasitic microorganism travels from one host to another

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5
Q

Malaria

Cause

A

Eukaryotic organisms for the genus Plasmodium

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6
Q

Malaria

Transmission

A

The vector for malaria is the female Anopheles mosquito
The mosquito bites an infected person and takes in the Plasmodium gametes from their blood
Plasmodium zygotes develop inside the mosquito’s stomach then move to the salivary glands
When the mosquito bites someone else it injects saliva as an anticoagulant transferring the Plasmodium
Inside the new host the Plasmodium moves to the liver where it produces gametes
The gametes move to the red blood cells

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7
Q

Malaria

Global Distribution

A

South America
Sub-Saharan Africa
North Africa
South East Asia

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8
Q

Malaria

Global Impact

A

Increases drug resistance by Plasmodium
40% of the world’s population love in malarial areas
Difficult to develop a vaccine as there are different species of Plasmodium that cause malaria

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9
Q

Malaria

Control Measures

A

Mosquito nets to prevent them from biting at night
Drugs to fight the Plasmodium
Reduce Mosquito populations
Destroy mosquito larva

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10
Q

HIV / AIDS

Cause

A

Human immunodeficiency virus

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11
Q

HIV / AIDS

Transmission

A

Exchange of bodily fluids

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12
Q

HIV / AIDS

Description

A

HIV-Positive: the virus enters the body but remains inactive
Once it becomes active it attacks and destroys T helper cells
This damage to the immune system makes the person susceptible to a range of opportunistic infections
It is the effects of these diseases that will kill a person with HIV
AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome

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13
Q

HIV / AIDS

Global Distribution

A 
Worldwide
Particularly:
-Sub Saharan Africa
-South East Asia
-Latin America
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14
Q

HIV / AIDS

Global Impact

A

Over 40 million people are living with HIV
Millions of new cases are discovered each year
Affects a range of people not just those in poverty
TH is an associated opportunistic infection

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15
Q

HIV / AIDS

Control Measures

A

Health education
Screening of blood donations
Needle exchange schemes

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16
Q

TB

Cause

A

Two species of bacterium:

  • Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • Mycobacterium bovis
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17
Q

TB

Transmission

A 
Droplet Infection
Made more likely by:
-overcrowding
-poor ventilation
-poor health
-poor diet
TB can also be contracted from the milk or meat of cattle
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18
Q

TB

Global Distribution

A 
Worldwide
Particularly in:
-South East Asia
-Sub Saharan Africa 
-Eastern Europe
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19
Q

TB

Global Impact

A

Some strains are resistant to drugs
New people are infected each year
Many people may be infected but not diagnosed yet
BCG vaccine has been ruled ineffective

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20
Q

TB

Control Measures

A

Contact tracing
Testing for bacteria and screening for symptoms
Long course of antibiotics

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21
Q

Immune Response

Definition

A

A response to an antigen which involves the activation of leukocytes and the production of antibodies

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22
Q

Antigen

Definition

A

Molecules found on the surface of cells which can stimulate the production of antibodies

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23
Q

Antibodies

Definition

A

A specialised protein produced by B cells

Able to neutralise the effect of a complimentary antigen

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24
Q

Primary Defence

Definition

A

Defences that set out to prevent pathogens from entering the body

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25
Q

Primary Defences

Tears

A

Wash out bacteria

Contain lysosome enzymes and antibodies to destroy bacteria

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26
Q

Primary Defences

Skin

A

A tough impenetrable layer

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27
Q

Primary Defences

Mouth

A

Contains good bacteria to prevent the establishment of bad bacteria

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28
Q

Primary Defences

Nose and Lungs

A

Contain ciliated epithelial

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29
Q

Primary Defences

Stomach

A

Highly acidic to kill potential pathogens

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30
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells

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31
Q

Phagocytes

Definition

A

Cells that can carry out a phagocytosis and ingest bacteria or small particles
Macrophages and neutrophils are both phagocytes
Non specific

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32
Q

Non Specific Immune Response

Macrophages

A

Manufactured in the bone marrow
Travel in the blood as monocytes
Tend to settle in the body organs particularly in the lymph nodes where they develop into macrophages
Engulf invading pathogens

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33
Q

Non Specific Immune Response

Neutrophils

A

Produced in the bone marrow
Travel in the blood
Able to squeeze out of the blood into the tissue fluid
Also found on epithelial surfaces e.g. in the lungs
Undergo phagocytosis

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34
Q

Secondary Defence

Definition

A

Defences that attempt to destroy pathogens that have already invaded the body

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35
Q

Differences Between Macrophages and Neutrophils

A 
Macrophages live longer in the blood
Macrophages are larger than neutrophils
Neutrophils dominate the infection site early after infection, macrophages dominate one to two days after the infection
Neutrophils have a multi-lobed nucleus
Macrophages can present antigens
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36
Q

Neutrophils

Structure

A

Multi lobed nucleus

Very flexible allowing them to pass through the fenestrations in capillary walls to move into the tissue fluid

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37
Q

Antibodies

Structure

A

Y shape
Constant Region:
-Two heavy polypeptide chains and two light polypeptide chains
-Disulphides bridges between polypeptide chains
-hinge region to arms to spread apart when the antibodies binds to an antigen
Variable Region
-differentiates between antibodies
-complimentary shape to specific antigens

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38
Q

Neutralisation of Pathogens

A

Antibodies cover binding sites on pathogen preventing it from binding to a host cell

39
Q

Agglutination of Pathogens

A

Antibodies cause pathogens to clump together making it easier to be engulfed by phagocytes

40
Q

Specific Immune Response

B Lymphocytes

A
  • Antibodies on the surface bind to antigens on the surface of the pathogen partially activating the cell
  • An activated complimentary T helper cell binds to the B lymphocyte and activates it
  • The B cell clones itself producing B memory cells and activated B cells
41
Q

Specific Immune Response

Macrophages

A
  • takes in pathogen by phagocytosis
  • antigen presentation, takes the antigens from the pathogen and attaches them to an MHC protein which is over to the surface by exocytosis
  • binds to complimentary T helper cell and activates it
42
Q

Specific Immune Response

T Helper Cells

A
  • CD4 receptor on surface binds to complimentary antigens on antigen presenting macrophage
  • receives signal from macrophage to activate it
  • clones itself to produce T memory cells and activated T helper cells
43
Q

Specific Immune Response

Plasma Cells

A
  • activated B cells differentiate to become plasma cells
  • full of RER for protein synthesis
  • produce vast numbers of antibodies
  • antibodies are secreted by exocytosis
44
Q

Specific Immune Response

B Memory Cells

A
  • remain in the body for a long time after infection

- trigger a faster secondary immune response

45
Q

Specific Immune Response

T Memory Cells

A
  • remain in the body for a long time after infection

- trigger a fast secondary immune response

46
Q

Specific Immune Response

Activated T Helper Cells

A
  • bind to complimentary B lymphocyte

- secretes cytokines to activate the B lymphocyte

47
Q

B cells

Production

A

Produced in the bone marrow by stem cells

Mature in the bone marrow

48
Q

T Cells

Production

A

Produced by stem cells in the bone marrow

Mature in the thymus (in the chest)

49
Q

Clonal Selection

Definition

A

Selecting the complimentary lymphocyte to the antigen on the invading pathogen

50
Q

Clonal Expansion

Definition

A

Selected complimentary lymphocyte clones producing many more

51
Q

Primary Response

Definition

A

The pathogen is detected by the immune system and starts producing antibodies but it takes a few days for antibody activity to significantly increase

52
Q

Secondary Response

Definition

A

Memory cells are able to trigger a much faster immune response, rapidly producing large numbers of antibodies

53
Q

Natural Immunity

Definition

A

Immunity acquired through exposure to disease during the normal course of life

54
Q

Artificial Immunity

Definition

A

Immunity acquired by deliberate exposure to antigens or injection of antibodies

55
Q

Passive Immunity

Definition

A

Immunity acquired without the activation of lymphocytes

Provided by antibodies which haven’t been produced by stimulating the immune system

56
Q

Active Immunity

Definition

A

Immunity acquired by the activation of the immune system

57
Q

Passive Natural Immunity

Example

A

Maternal antibodies provided via breast milk or the placenta

Useful while the baby’s immune system is still developing

58
Q

Passive Artificial Immunity

Example

A

Injection of antibodies

59
Q

Active Natural Immune

Example

A

Antibodies and memory cells made in the immune system as a result of infection

60
Q

Active Artificial Immunity

Example

A

Antibodies and memory cells made in the immune system as a result of vaccination

61
Q

Herd Vaccination

A

Large proportion of the population is vaccinated

Reduces the risk for individuals that aren’t vaccinated as the disease can’t spread

62
Q

Ring Vaccination

A

Vaccinating individuals in the immediate proximity of a new case of infection
Prevents the disease from spreading

63
Q

Influenza

Definition

A

Respiratory disease caused by a virus

64
Q

Influenza

Government Response

A

In the UK there is a vaccination programme for over 65s and ‘at risk’ groups
Specific strains of flu are vaccinated against because the virus mutates so quickly
Research is done to determine which strains of flu are likely to spread fastest in a particular year

65
Q

New Sources of Medicine

Microorganisms

A
  • research into how they cause disease
  • it may be possible to block receptor sites to prevent pathogens fro entering the cell
  • comparing human DNA with the microorganism to identify potential drugs
66
Q

New Sources of Medicine

Plants

A
  • maintaining biodiversity is important as plants that could be developed as new drugs may become extinct
  • comparing human and plant DNA to identify potential drugs
67
Q

New Source of Medicine

Chemical Fingerprinting

A

New techniques allow scientists to screen natural chemicals

68
Q

Specific Immune Response

T Lymphocytes

A
  • viral pathogen invades host cell which presents viral antigens on surface
  • complimentary T lymphocyte binds to presented antigens
  • T lymphocyte clones producing T memory cells and T killer cells
69
Q

Specific Immune Response

T Killer Cells

A
  • binds to complimentary presented antigens on surface of host body cell
  • secretes toxic substances e.g. hydrogen peroxide into the infected cell
  • this causes lysis
  • the cell bursts destroying it and the viral pathogen
70
Q

Vaccination

Definition

A

Deliberate exposure to antigenic material (using an injection) which activates the immune system triggering an immune response producing memory cells to provide immunity

71
Q

Antigenic Material Examples

A

Whole, live Microorganisms
A dead pathogen
Harmless or attenuated version of the pathogenic organism
Preparation of the antigens from a pathogen

72
Q

Nicotine

Effects

A

Releases adrenalin increasing heart rate and blood pressure
Stimulates decrease in blood flow to the extremities
Makes platelets sticky increasing the risk of blood clots, thrombosis

73
Q

Carbon Monoxide

Effects

A

Reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood as haemoglobin has a higher affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen
Damages the linings if arteries

74
Q

Tar

Short Term Effects

A

Settles in the linings of the airways and the alveoli which increases diffusion distance
Can trigger allergic reactions
Airway lumen narrows restricting air flow
Paralyses cilia
Stimulates goblet cells to secrete mucus
Increased risk of infection

75
Q

Tar

Long Term Effects

A 
Smokers cough
Irritation of airways
Damages linings of airways and alveoli
Linings replaced by scar tissue
Smooth muscle thickens permanently narrowing lumen
76
Q

Effects of Smoking - Gas Exchange System

A

Chronic Bronchitis
Emphysema
Lung Cancer
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

77
Q

Chronic Bronchitis

Description

A

Inflamed lining of lungs
Smooth muscle thickens
Goblet cells secrete more mucus
Damage to cilia

78
Q

Chronic Bronchitis

Effects

A

Shortness of breath
Wheezing
Persistent cough
Increased risk of lung infection

79
Q

Emphysema

Description

A

Loss of elasticity in the alveoli
Alveoli burst
Air spaces are larger reducing surface area for gas exchange

80
Q

Emphysema

Effects

A

Shortness of breath
Difficulty exhaling
Blood less well oxygenated
Fatigue

81
Q

Lung Cancer

Description

A

Carcinogens enter lung tissue cells
Mutation effects cell division controlling gene
Uncontrolled division leads to tumour
Bronchitis become blocked by cancerous growth

82
Q

Lung Cancer

Effects

A

Persistent cough
Coughing up blood
Weight loss
Chest pain

83
Q

Effect of Smoking - The Cardiovascular System

A 
Atherosclerosis
Thrombosis
Stroke
Coronary Heart Disease
Arteriosclerosis
84
Q

Atherosclerosis

Description

A

Carbon monoxide damages endothelium of arteries
Damage repaired by leukocytes
Encourages smooth muscle growth and deposition of cholesterol by LDLs
Deposits build up to form atheroma in the artery wall
Atheroma grows larger and penetrates endothelium
This forms a plaque sticking out into the lumen of the artery

85
Q

Atherosclerosis

Effects

A

Reduced lumen size
Restricted blood flow
Increased risk of blood clots
Reduced blood flow in coronary arteries leads to coronary heart disease

86
Q

Thrombosis

Description

A

Formation of a thrombus, a blood clot
Clots can break off and flow in the blood
Lodge in narrow arteries stopping blood flow

87
Q

Thrombosis

Effects

A

Can cause strokes

Restricts blood flow

88
Q

Stroke

Description

A

Caused by a thrombus or a haemorrhage causing a an artery leading to the brain bursting
A death of part of the brain tissue

89
Q

Stroke

Effects

A

Sudden numbness or weakness in face, arm, leg ,one side of body
Difficulty seeing, speaking, walking, balancing
Severe headache or migraine

90
Q

Coronary Heart Disease

Description

A

Coronary arteries carry blood at high pressure increasing risk of atherosclerosis
Arteries can be narrowed by plaques
Cardiac muscle receives less oxygenated blood

91
Q

Coronary Heart Disease

Effects

A

Difficulty exercising
Out of breath easily and quickly
Chest pain

92
Q

Arteriosclerosis

Description

A

Thickening and stiffening of artery walls

Loss of elasticity

93
Q

Epidemiology

A

The study of patterns in disease and he factors that influence their spread

  • identifies links between disease and risk factors
  • incentivise at risk groups
  • predicts future incidents of disease
94
Q

Epidemiology

Smoking and Disease

A

About half of smokers die of smoking related diseases

Smokers are 3 times as likely to die in middle age than non smokers

95
Q

Epidemiology

Smoking and Lung Cancer

A

Stopping smoking reduces the risk of lung cancer
Smokers are 18 times more likely to develop lung cancer
25% of smokers die due to lung cancer

96
Q

Epidemiology

Smoking and Cardiovascular Disease

A

Less evident link as CVD is multi factorial

However substances in cigarette smoke are known to increase the risk of CVD

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