explanations of forgetting (interference and retrieval failure) Flashcards
Why do we forget? (STM)
Interference occurs when two pieces of information conflict with each other, resulting in forgetting of one or both pieces of information – or distortion of memory.
Retrieval failure suggests that this may be because of insufficient cues. When information is initially placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time.
If these cues are not available at the time of recall, it may make it appear as if you have forgotten the information.
What is Proactive interfernce?
This occurs when old information stored in long-term memory, interferes with the learning of new information. This usually occurs when the new information is similar to the old information.
Example: when you get a new mobile phone number, your memory of your old number will disrupt your attempts to remember your new number.
What is Retroactive
interference?
This occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information from long-term memory.
Example – once you’ve learned your new mobile phone number, it if often
difficult to recall your old number.
Key Research Study: McGeoch & Mcdonald (1931)
Lab experiment
Participants had to learn a list of 10 words (adjectives) until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. They then learned a new list.
Group 1: synonyms- words had the same meanings as the originals
Group 2: antonyms- words had opposite meanings to the originals
Group 3: unrelated- words unrelated to the original ones
Group 4: nonsense syllables
Group 5: three digit numbers
Group 6: no new list- participants just rested (control group)
McGeoch & Mcdonald (1931): Findings
Performance depended on nature of second list- most similar, worst recall. When given different material (digits) the mean number of items recalled increased.
This shows that interference is strongest when memories are similar. In group 1 it was likely that the words with the same meanings as the original list blocked access or that the new material became confused with the old material.
What is a limitation of interference?
P: A limitation is that interference is more likely in lab experiments than in
real-life situations.
E: Learning word lists is more realistic than nonsense syllables (as seen in previous research), however this is still quite a distance for the things we try to remember in everyday life.
C: This suggests that use of artificial tasks makes interference much more
likely in lab settings, but not reflective of everyday life.
What is a strength of interference?
P: A strength is that there is research support for interference.
E: Interference in memory is probably one of the most consistently demonstrated in psychology. Most of these studies show that interference is likely to be common as a way of forgetting information.
C: Lab experiments control the effects of extraneous variables and so give us confidence that inference is a valid explanation.
Counterargument: The theories of forgetting use a nomothetic approach
to establish general laws regarding forgetting, but often from generalising
from small studies. An idiographic approach investigating forgetting, using participants of different ages and cultures may give more insight into this complex phenomenon.
What is Retrieval Failure?
A form of forgetting. It occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a
suitable cue is provided.
What is a Cue
A ‘trigger’ of information that allows us to access a memory. These might be meaningful or indirectly linked by being encoded at the time of learning.
Key Research Study: Godden & Baddeley (1975)
Lab experiment
To investigate whether memory for words learned and recalled in the same environment, was better than memory for words learned and recalled in different environments.
The divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and then were asked to recall the words either underwater or long. This created 4 conditions:
Condition 1: Learn on land – recall on land
Condition 2: Learn on land – recall underwater
Condition 3: Learn underwater – recall on land
Condition 4: Learn underwater – recall underwater
Godden & Baddeley (1975): Findings
In two of these conditions the environmental contexts of learning and recall matched, whereas in the other two they did not.
Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching
conditions.
The external cues available at learning were different from the ones at recall and this led to retrieval failure.
This means that in order to avoid forgetting, we need to recall information in the same environment that we learn it.
A limitation of the context effect?
P: A limitation is that the context effect may be related to the kind of
memory being tested.
E: Godden and Baddeley replicated their underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall. P’s had to say whether they recognised a word read to them from the list, instead of recalling it- there was no context effect.
C: This means that the presence or absence of cues only affects memory
when you test it in a certain way.
Counterargument: However, Baddeley & Hitch’s research showed gender bias, they investigated interference using an all-male sample and applied their findings outside of this target population to include females. This is an
example of beta bias, minimising the difference between males and females.
Key Research: Carter & Cassaday (1998)
Lab experiment
To investigate whether being in a different internal/psychological
state had an impact on accuracy of memory.
They gave anti-histamine drugs (for treating hay fever) to their participants. The anti histamines had a mild sedative effect making the participants slightly drowsy. This creates an internal psychological state different from the ‘normal’ state or being awake and alert. The participants had to learn lists of words and passages of prose and then recall the information, again creating 4 conditions:
Condition 1: Learn on drug – recall when on it
Condition 2: Learn not on drug- recall when on it
Condition 3: Learn on it – recall when not on it
Condition 4: Learn not on it – recall when not on it
Carter & Cassaday (1998): Findings
In conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse.
So when the cues are absent (for example, you are drowsy when recalling information but had been alert when learning it)
then there is more forgetting.
What is a strength of retrieval failure?
P: A strength is that there is a range of research support for retrieval
failure.
E: The studies by Godden & Baddeley and Cater & Cassaday are just two
examples of this research. Researcher Eysenck (2010) goes so far to argue
that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting from LTM.
C: This is a strength because supporting evidence increases the validity (accuracy) of an
explanation. This is especially true when the evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs in real-life situations as well as within the highly controlled conditions of the lab.
