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Exotics 3 Flashcards

1
Q

In terms of wildlife disease management what are the 3 main considerations

A

1) is management desirable
2) is management feasible
3) what is the goal with management - prevention, control or eradication

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2
Q

In terms of is management desirable what are the 4 main reasons that would make it so and how to determine

A
  • Is management desired/needed to protect human (number 1 reason) and/or domestic animal health (number 2 reason)?
  • Is management needed to protect a threatened species (number 3 reason)
    ○ If affecting the population that isn’t threatened (number 4 maybe not reason)
    DETERMINE - Perform a cost : benefit analysis
    ○ This may include financial costs (and benefits), but must also consider ecological costs and benefits
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3
Q

in terms of is management feasible what are the 3 main questions that needs to be asked

A
  • Can we monitor the disease?
  • Who is the target population for management?
    ○ wildlife vs humans vs domestic animals
  • Can we monitor the success of management?
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4
Q

In terms of outbreak investigation management what are the 3 levels

A

1) managing the pathogen/toxin
2) managing the animal
3) managing the environment - many stakeholders, harder to do anything about

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5
Q

In terms of managing the pathogen/toxin for wildlife outbreak management what are the 3 types of pathogens and possible management

A

○ Non-infectious -> generally highly political
○ Infectious -> treating a large number of wild animals - DIFFICULT
§ Commercial fox bait laces with praziquantel -> intensive and expensive
Vectors -> infertile male mosquito prevents fertilisation

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6
Q

In terms of managing the animal for wildlife outbreak management what are the 2 main ways and examples within

A

1) Change distribution of animals -> remove from source
§ Disperse animals (including restriction from an area)
§ Restriction of movement -> keep animals within certain national parks
§ Selective culling
§ Reduce population density (mainly killing, repro control) -> NZ trying to cull all possums
□ Works for density dependent diseases (NOT Tasmanian devils
§ Insurance population
□ Treat in wild population and vaccinate
□ NOTHING can do for disease and get healthy animals out -> still have some if the wild ones disappear
® Brings up issue with captive breeding programs
□ Tassie devils
2) Vaccination
§ Aim to achieve -> push reproductive number below 1 -> rabies in switzerland

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7
Q

In terms of managing the environment in wildlife outbreak management what is the aim, what does it required and 2 main options

A

○ Aim: Reduce exposure to pathogen, or increase ability to cope with pathogen
○ Requires thorough understanding of the disease epidemiology, but may result in longer lasting results than first two options.
○ Options include:
§ Abiotic environment: climate, soils, water
§ Biotic environment: vegetation, animals

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8
Q

What are the 5 main disease surveillance types for wildlife

A
  1. Mass mortality events
  2. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of known diseases (usually via research projects)
  3. Single accessions of dead wildlife to pathology labs
    § Australia: co-ordinated zoo-based and uni-based
  4. Active surveillance to collect samples from target population
    § E.g. testing frog populations for presence of chytridfungus; avian influenza
    § Requires established protocols
  5. Passive surveillance - most common
    § Opportunistic sampling generally from public identifying mortalities and government investigation there
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9
Q

What are the 5 main applicable legal Victoria codes for dealing with wildlife in practice

A

1) wildlife act 1975 - most important
2) Wildlife Shelter and Foster Carer Authorisation Guide 2018 -> wildlife rehabilitation
3) catchment land protection act 1994
4) prevention of cruelty to animals act 1986
5) veterinary practice act 1997

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10
Q

For wildlife act 1975 what is the 3 main important statements to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

A

○ Protected wildlife can only be held by licensed carer, or veterinarian (and their staff) for treatment and rehabilitation
○ A special license is needed to hold wildlife for any other purpose
○ All shelters must keep report, which include species, date of admission, location of rescue, animal injuries, cause of injury and fate of animal

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11
Q

Wildlife Shelter and Foster Carer Authorisation Guide 2018 what are the 5 main statements to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

A

○ Shelters must comply with any direction from authorised office from Department of Environment
○ A vet may ask DELWP for help if concerned about welfare
○ Unusual or threatened wildlife to be reported to DEPI
○ Animals released near point of capture
○ Treatment only if full recovery is likely

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12
Q

Catchment land protection and veterainary act what is the main statement that need to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

A
  • Catchment Land Protection Act 1994
    ○ Offense to care for or release animals listed as pest species
    If admitted to vet clinic - MUST BE EUTHANISED
  • Veterinary Practice Act 1997
    A vet needs to act in a professional manner
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13
Q

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986 what is the 2 main statements that need to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

A

○ Offense to omit or do an act which causes unreasonable pain or suffering or be owner or person in charge of injured animal and unreasonably fail to provide vet treatment -> if guilty of this offence a prison sentence could be attained
○ Vet practitioner may destroy animal likely to cause serious injury or death to other person or animal or if animal will continue to suffer if remain alive

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14
Q

List some pets animals in Vic and what needs to be done with them

A

MUST BE EUTHANISED

  • RABBITS
  • Red-eared slider turtle
  • Cane toad
  • Carp
  • Red fox
  • European hare
  • Feral or wild goats
  • Feral or wild pig
  • Wild or feral dog - if on private property or within 1km radius of the farm
  • feral bird species:
  • Indian mynahs
  • Feral pigeons
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15
Q

What do you do if someone brings in an unidentified (possibly feral) cat

A
  • Not declared pest species

- Emergency treatment (euthanise on welfare grounds) -> stabilise/pain-relief and give to the council

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16
Q

Brushtail possum if trapped in the house and bring into the vet clinic what do you do

A

○ Can humanely euthanise the possum -> legal

○ If they have been trapped humanely they can be released within 50 meters of the house after sunset

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17
Q

A carer rings you after hours and asks to bring in a koala that has been hit by a car; the animal appears to have moderate to severe injuries, including a fractured leg
Do you have to see the animal?

A

YES YOU NEED TO SEE IT (if you are on call)
○ Legal requirements:
§ Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1986)
□ Vet; “finder”
§ Special “vet clause” -> HAVE TO HELP and also can euthanise an animal that is endangering human life or other animals

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18
Q

A carer rings you after hours and asks to bring in a koala that has been hit by a car; the animal appears to have moderate to severe injuries, including a fractured leg. What information do you need from the carer and where keep it?

A

History taking
- Where was the animal found?
○ Animal must be released at site of rescue (Code of Practice for the Welfare of Wildlife During Rehabilitation 2001; Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
® Some exceptions
® If don’t do this less likely to survive
- What happened to the animal, and when? Or when was the animal first noticed?
- How easy was it to capture the animal?
- Contact details of the carer, and the “rescuer”
- Keep good records of admission, treatment and outcome

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19
Q

What are the 4 main steps after admission of the animal

A
  1. Prompt triage
  2. Consider zoonotic potential
  3. If immediate attention is not needed: dark and quiet area, ideally separate from cats/dogs
    - Basics: species, weight, body measurements, age, condition
    - Observe the animal: clues on degree of illness and type of injuries
  4. Decide on whether sedation or anaesthesia is needed for:
    - Diagnostics: physical exam, radiography, bloods, faecal floatation (may find faeces in box/cage) etc
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20
Q

What 5 main considerations you need to take into account before deciding on your treatment regime and/or whether to treat

A
  1. How serious are the injuries? Is the animal likely to fully recover and be able to be released within a reasonable time frame?
  2. Wildlife unable to be fully rehabilitated should not be kept as pets (CoPWelfare of Wildlife During Rehabilitation); some exceptions
  3. What are the ecological implications of rehabilitating and releasing the animal -> is it overabundant or threatened species
  4. Cost recovery???
  5. Should you refer the animal to a specialist wildlife veterinarian?
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21
Q

List some conditions that make a full recovery for injuried wildlife doubtful, if unsure or have threatened species what to do

A

○ Sensory losses: loss of sight, hearing, smell
○ Loss of motility
○ Underlying chronic disease (e.g. chlamydiosis)
○ Loss of a limb or prehensile tail
○ Imprinting on humans or inability to adjust to captivity
○ IF UNSURE -> CALL ZOO VETS
IF Threatened species -> call the government

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22
Q

If you decide to treat, how long should you keep the animal in hospital for?

A

As little time as possible

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23
Q

A member of the public rings your clinic to tell you they have found a sick-looking flying fox sitting under a tree in their garden, and they want to know what to do.
What do you/your reception staff advise them to do?

A
  1. DO NOT TOUCH -> Zoonotic bat diseases!!
    - Life-threatening viral diseases affecting humans
    ○ Hendra virus (probably no direct transmission)
    - Australian Bat Lyssavirus(ABLV) (direct transmission; fatal) - RABIES
    ○ “Beware” of the yellow bellied sheath-tail bat
    ○ MORE LIKELY TO CARRY IN A SICK BAT
    - Menangle virus (bat to pig; pig to human)
  2. CALL A CAREER that is vaccinated against rabies
    - If there is no one available cannot do much for the bat
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24
Q

A member of the public rings your clinic to tell you they have found a sick-looking flying fox sitting under a tree in their garden, and they want to know what to do. What information do you obtain from the caller and later the carer?

A

○ History taking
- How long has the animal been observed to be sitting under the tree?
- Have there been any other animals showing similar signs?
- Has anyone already touched the animal?
○ Then need to euthanised and tested for rabies
○ Cannot give human health advice - HIGHLY RECOMMEND THAT NEED TO GO SEE GP
- Carer: How easy was it to catch the animal?

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25
Q

A member of the public rings your clinic to tell you they have found a sick-looking flying fox sitting under a tree in their garden, and they want to know what to do. Should you see/examine the flying fox yourself?

A

○ Only if vaccinated

○ If scratched need to get post exposure vaccine -> GO SEE DOCTOR

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26
Q

One of your large animal clients brings in an orphan joey that she has found in a paddock next to its dead mother. She wants to get some milk replacer for it and asks you to have a quick look at the animal while she’s here. Is it okay for her to raise the orphan kangaroo?

A

○ According to the Wildlife Regulations 2013, it’s an offence to give an animal to a member of the public who is not a licensed wildlife carer(exception for veterinary surgeons and their staff for the purpose of treatment)

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27
Q

In terms of marsupial dosages what animal go by

A

use cats as a model -> they are generally more sensitive

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28
Q

Marsupials shape of their spleen, metabolism and body temp

A
  • Spleen is triangular or triradiate
  • Marsupial metabolism 30% than non-marsupial,
  • Mean body temp from 33-36 degrees
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29
Q

Marsupials teeth what are the 2 types

A

1) Wombat teeth are open rooted (rodents) need to grind against each other to get worn down (symmetrical manner) malocclusion is bad
○ Need to be able to survive in the wild without human intervention -> wombats with malocclusion need dental treatment commonly so cannot be released - euthanised
2) Molar progression - eastern grey kangaroo -> 4 sets of molars all up and once they are used up the kangaroos

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30
Q

Marsupials GIT what are the 2 main types and species within

A

○ Foregut fermenters -> macropods -> large sacculated stomach (not 4 chamber stomach)
○ Hindgut fermenters
§ Wombats -> caecum is vestigial and fermentation occurs in the colon
§ Others -> large caecum with most extensive being of the koala

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31
Q

Marsupials reproductive tract how many structures

A

○ Two ovaries, two oviducts, two separate uteri and cervices
○ Each uterus opens into a vaginal sac separated from septum into the lateral vagina
§ Median vagina comes into play during birth (before first birth pretty much non-existent)
□ Can remain or re-forms every time gives birth
○ Each vaginal goes into urogenital sinus which also receives the urethra -> cloaca

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32
Q

what are some important aspects of housing for bandicoots, wombats, kangaroos and possums

A
  • Bandicoots -> solitary, soft floor to prevent foot problems
  • Wombats -> dig proof, need a den
  • Kangaroos -> need to graze, all fence post on the outside (can run along the fence line and can take their shoulders out on the way around)
  • Possum and glider -> roofed and branches provided
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33
Q

What is the goal of physical restraint in wildlife and how long do for

A
  • Use this to achieve chemical restraint

- Highly stressful so want to do for as short of a time as possible

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34
Q

Physical restrain how to achieve on a macropod

A
  • Adult NEVER MANUALLY RESTAINED
  • Grasped at the base of the tail then lift off the ground
  • Place into hessian bags or pillow case and then anaesthesia via infection or extracting head from sack and mask induction
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35
Q

Physical restrain how to achieve on a possums what is important to avoid

A
  • Scratch and deliver painful baits
  • Generally people trap the possums -> sit in the back of the trap and need to get into hessian bag/pillow case/towel
    ○ Do this but backing spitting noises at the possum with bag at the end, if doesn’t move may need to inject and anaesthetise in the trap
  • A towel should be thrown over them then grasp firmly behind the head (FIRM, MORE LIKELY TO GET BITTEN THEN STRANGLE) and then hold base of tail -> stretch out of possum
    ○ Place mask or inject for induction
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36
Q

Physical restrain how to achieve on a koalas and wombats what is important to avoid

A

KOALAS
- Extremely sharp claws and teeth but quite fragile ribs
- Restrain by holding both upper arms, AVOID TEETH
- Transport sack is ideal
WOMBATS
- Extremely strong and sharp teeth
If quiet enough can be picked up under forearms in bear hug

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37
Q

Physical restrain how to achieve on a echidna what is important to avoid

A
  • Difficult to retrain once in a ball
  • Try to get onto solid surface (concrete), shovel underneath and reach under and try to grab the back leg, lift up (point cloaca away from yourself as will spray)
  • May need to inject (difficult to get into face mask as dip snot within)
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38
Q

What are the 4 main chemical restrain options and the main general way that is ideal

A
  • Preferred way is to place face mask and induct via isoflurane -> induction and recovery is fast
    1) Zoleti
    2) xylazine/ketamine
    3) medetomidine/ketamine - more relaxed but more expensive and need larger volumes
    4) alfaxalone - IV generally - works well in reptiles
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39
Q

Zoletil what is it good for with wildlife

A
  • Zoletil -> good for wildlife and good for tranquilizer gun
    ○ Go down quickly, relaxation not the best (jaw clamping and leg movement)
    ○ Can take several hours to wake up from
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40
Q

What are the 6 main injection sites for marsupials and which marsupials use with each

A
  1. Lateral coccygeal vein in macropods (along either side of the tail).
  2. Ventral coccygeal vein (as for rodents) is useful for smaller marsupials e.g. possums, gliders, small carnivorous marsupials.
  3. Femoral vein/artery. (Direct needle at pulse felt in inguinal region.) Arterial blood is often obtained and digital pressure is required to prevent haematoma formation.
    ○ This vessel is good in koalas and bandicoots, but general anaesthesia is required to access it.
  4. Medial metatarsal vein (small vein along medial aspect of hindleg). Good for wombats.
  5. Cephalic vein can be used in macropods, koalas, wombats (with some difficulty).
  6. Jugular vein -> for those with necks (kangaroos), NOT WOMBATS
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41
Q

Euthanasia in wildlife and what are some common anaglesics

A

euthanasia - Intracardiac as already anesthetised
Analgesics
- butorphanol, buprenorphine, flunixin, carprofen,meloxicam

42
Q

Toxoplasmosis hosts, clinical signs, diagnosis and pathology

A

Toxoplasma gondii
○ Cats are definitive host, marsupials are SUSCEPTIBLE (kangaroo, wombat and bandicoots)
○ Clinical signs: sudden death, blindness, neurological symptoms, depression, anorexia, ataxia, staggering
○ Diagnosis: Direct agglutination test -> once test results back animal probably dead
○ Pathology: cysts in the brain and lungs, non-supportive encephalitis

43
Q

Toxoplasmosis treatment, control and zoonosis?

A

○ Treatment: Clindamycin 11 mg/kg IM BID for 30 days, trimethoprim-sulphonamide 15 mg/kg IM SID, or atovaquone 100 mg/kg PO SID for 30 days - PROBABLY STILL DIE, HAVEN’T BEEN PROVEN TO HELP
○ Control: prevent marsupia access to cat faeces, sterilise equipment by autoclaving for 70 degrees at least 10mins
○ ZOONOSIS -> potential with immunocompromised people, foetal abnormalities if pregnant women infected - CAN BE TESTED

44
Q

Coccidiosis what marsupials is it mainly within, why occur, clinical signs and diagnosis

A

Hand-raised eastern grey kangaroo and common wombats
○ Thought because no maternal antibodies/immunity passed to young from mum so when placed in environment with oocysts pick them up then die
○ Clinical signs: sudden death with or without coccidial oocysts, haemorrhagic diarrhoea
○ Diagnosis: faecal float but may not find oocysts

45
Q

Coccidiosis within wildlife pathology, treatment and control

A

○ Pathology: Haemorrhagic enteritis with numerous pale foci in the small intestine. Schizonts and gamonts are visible in the lamina propria
○ Treatment: Toltrazuril 25 mg/kg PO SID, ponazuril 50 mg/kg PO SID. IV fluids -> GENERALLY CANNOT TREAT
○ Control: prophylactically give plasma transfusion (anecdotally) just before start grazing

46
Q

Sarcoptic mange what marspuials within, clinical signs and significance

A

Sarcoptes scabiei -> Wombats and koalas.
○ Clinical Signs: Affected wombats are often seen during the day, emaciated, blind, intensely pruritic and develop hair loss with a thick, dry, keratinous crust, which fissures with movement leading to secondary pyoderma and myiasis.
○ ZOONOSIS

47
Q

Sarcoptic mange in marsupials diagnosis, treatment and control

A

○ Diagnosis: Skin scraping
○ Treatment: Euthanasia. Ivermectin or moxidectin 0.3 mg/kg SC weekly. Selamectin 6 mg/kg topically (revolution - once a week for 4 treatments)
○ Control: Eradication from a population is not possible. Mites survive up to three weeks in burrows.

48
Q

Chlamydiosis what are the 2 species, zoonosis? and clinical signs

A

Koalas. Chlamydia pneumoniae and Chlamydia pecorum.
○ There are no recorded cases of koala chlamydia infecting humans.
○ Clinical Signs:
i. Mucopurulent conjunctivitis and keratitis leading to blindness.
ii. Soiling and staining of the fur around the rump, dysuria and haematuria as a result of cystitis.
iii. Pyelonephritis, hydronephrosis and renal fibrosis. Cystic enlargement of the ovarian bursae, salpingitis, hyrdosalpinx, metritis, pyometra, and vaginitis.
iv. Affected females usually become infertile but may not show external signs of disease.

49
Q

Chlamydiosis diagnosis, treatment and control

A

○ Diagnosis: PCR on swab of conjunctiva, urogenital sinus or penile urethra.
○ Treatment: Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg IM SID for up to 12 weeks. Oxytetracycline or chloramphenicol eye ointment
§ Supplementary feeding with a soya based formula or a low lactose milk powder such as Di-Vetalact or Portagen.
§ Mix the powder with water to form a semi-liquid paste. Administer 60 ml of paste orally by syringe daily, divided into two or three doses.
§ Chronically affected emaciated koalas have a poor prognosis - euthanise
○ Control: Glutaraldehyde applied for one to ten minutes is the disinfectant of choice for chlamydia. Chloramine is also effective.

50
Q

Cryptococcosis what marsupial found in, how common, the different species and what associated with and transmission

A

Koalas - not common
○ Cryptococcus neoformans is usually associated with bird, particularly pigeon, faeces.
○ Cryptococcus gattii is associated with river red gums.
§ Thought to be immunocompromised animals as present in environment commonly
○ Spread is via aerosol and inhalation of desiccated discharges.
§ Animal to animal or animal to human transmission has not been reported.

51
Q

Cryptococcosis clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

A

○ Clinical Signs: Depression, coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, dyspnoea, anorexia, maxillary swelling, neurological signs, subcutaneous cervical abscessation and death. In parenchymal organs gross lesions appear as white gelatinous foci. Skin lesions are firm nodules that tend to ulcerate.
○ Diagnosis: Diff Quik, Gram or India ink stain of smears of discharges, or biopsies of affected areas, which display yeast-like organisms surrounded by a clear mucopolysaccharide capsule.
§ Organisms average 4-10 μm in diameter. The capsule increases the diameter to 30 μm. Culture or a latex cryptococcal antigen agglutination test on serum or CSF can also be used.
○ Treatment: Itraconazole 20 to 40 mg/kg SID, ketoconazole 10 mg/kg SID, or fluconazole 3 mg/kg SID for as long as 90 days.

52
Q

Pneumonia in marsupials what are the main bacterial causes, clinical signs, pathology and treatment

A

Fusobacterium necrophorum, Pseudomonas, and Klebsiella in macropods. Bordetella bronchiseptica in koalas.
○ Clinical Signs: Sudden death, dyspnoea, exercise intolerance, sneezing, coughing, or a mucopurulent nasal discharge.
○ Pathology: Necrotizing and fibrinous, lung tissue appears green and cavitated.
○ Treatment: Broad spectrum antibiotics - at cat dosage rates

53
Q

Cat Bites what marsupial does it mainly affect, clinical signs and treatment

A

Ring-tailed possums.
○ Clinical Signs: Leucopaenia, septicaemia (Pasteurella) and death. -> cats have nasty mouths
§ Punctures may be difficult to find but often occur over the shoulders or neck.
○ Treatment: Clavulox 12.5 mg/kg IM BID -> need to get onto early and be aggressive -> generally still die

54
Q

Caecal stasis what marsupials does it mainly affect, clinical signs and treatment

A

Ring-tailed possums treated with antibiotics or that have been maintained on an inappropriate diet high in sugar, such as fruit.
○ Clinical Signs: Weakness and bloating with decreased faecal output.
○ Treatment: Increase the fibre content of the diet by providing more browse combined with metoclopramide 1 mg/kg IM BID for seven days
§ Faecal transplants -> mix faeces with milk formula -> in koalas most bacteria needed is in caecum so need to get caecal contents as well

55
Q

Pouch infections what marsupials does it mainly affect, clinical signs and treatment

A

Brush-tailed possums, macropods and koalas. Pseudomonas has been isolated from some of these.
○ Clinical Signs: Hairs around the infected pouch are moist. The pouch itself contains a greasy foul smelling liquid.
○ Treatment: Twice daily cleaning of the pouch with an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine followed by drying with cotton swabs. Ceftazidime 15 mg/kg IM BID has successfully treated koala pouch infections.

56
Q

Lumpy jaw what marsupials does it affect and clinical signs

A

Primarily a disease of captive macropods.
○ Clinical Signs: Gingivitis progressing to cellulitis with abscessation of the muscles over the mandibles and maxilla, followed by osteomyelitis with tooth loss, bone resorption and fractures. Purulent nasal discharge, facial swelling, increased salivation, halitosis, difficulty prehending food and weight loss.
§ Visceral abscesses in the liver, lungs, spleen and stomach. Bone and soft tissues of the tail tip and hind toes may also become involved.

57
Q

Lumpy jaw treatment and control

A

○ Treatment: Flush abscessed material, curette affected bone, remove teeth and long term systemic antibiotics: clindamycin 11 mg/kg PO BID, long acting penicillin 1 ml/10 kg IM EOD, or ceftiofur 2 mg/kg IM SID.
§ Difficult to get rid of entirely
Control: Occurs most commonly on over stocked paddocks with a high faecal load. Daily raking and faecal removal will decrease the bacterial load in the paddock. Place feed in trays or hay racks. Do not feed bread as it forms a starchy paste on the teeth and gums promoting bacterial colonisation and infection

58
Q

Capture myopathy what is the main marsupial it affects, results from and clinical signs

A

Macropods.
○ The result of prolonged sustained stress and exertion, which causes heat and lactic acid build up. Heat stressed animals will lick their forelegs.
○ Clinical Signs:
§ Peracute death may occur within hours of capture due to rhabdomyolysis increasing serum potassium and acidosis leading to ventricular fibrillation.
§ Acute capture myopathy leads to death in three to four hours due to hyperthermia and shock.
□ Individuals show tachycardia, increased respiratory rate, reluctance to move, and muscle rigidity.
§ Subacute capture myopathy occurs several hours to days post capture.
□ Affected animals have ataxia, torticollis and myoglobinuria due to extensive muscle and kidney necrosis. Body temperature is usually normal. Muscles can rupture up to four weeks post capture.

59
Q

Capture myopathy what pathological finding would you see generally, after 10hrs, 3-4 days, 1 or more weeks

A

○ Pathology: Skeletal muscle necrosis is seen, most commonly in the hindlimb adductors and psoas muscle, but also in the neck, back and diaphragm.
§ After 10 hrs affected muscles are dark red, dry and well circumscribed.
§ At 3-4 days muscles are paler and softer than normal.
§ After 1 or more weeks muscles are white and hard due to fibrosis. Similar lesions may occur in the myocardium. Kidneys are often swollen and discoloured and the bladder may contain coffee coloured urine. Histologically renal tubules may be plugged with myoglobin and muscle fibres are necrotic. In chronic cases fibrosis and mineralisation occur. CPK peaks 6-12 hours post injury and declines rapidly in the absence of further injury. AST peaks 24-36 post injury and declines over several days.

60
Q

Capture myopathy treatment and control

A

○ Treatment: IV Fluids 90 ml/kg/hr IV (flush myoglobin through kidney and analgesics). Bicarbonate, (for acidosis treatment) Dexamethasone Dantrolene IV or methocarbamol IV (muscle relaxation). Flunixin IV, ketoprofen IM or butorphanol IV. Acepromazine IV (sedatives)
○ Control: Rapid capture, acclimate animals to handling and confinement, not capturing on hot days, ensure adequate ventilation, abandon capture if the animal becomes unduly excited or stressed, use of long acting tranquilisers and sedatives such as diazepam, and ensure animals are on a good plane of nutrition particularly with respect to Vitamin E and selenium as low levels of these nutrients have been shown to predispose to capture myopathy.

61
Q

Ringworm what are the 2 main species in marsupials, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and significance

A

Trichophyton spp. or Microsporum spp.
○ Clinical Signs: Alopecia, erythema and hyperkeratotic scales that lift off with the hair- generally on the limbs
§ Trichophyton infections are non-pruritic, Microsporum infections are pruritic.
○ Diagnosis: Scrape affected areas, stain with 40% potassium hydroxide or India ink and check for fungus. Culture.
○ Treatment: Topical antifungal agents. Many clear up without treatment
○ ZOONOSIS

62
Q

What are normal endoparasites found with marsupials

A

strongyle are normal

63
Q

List 6 endoparasites within marsupials and what do they lead to

A
  1. Strongyloides cause a haemorrhagic gastritis with ulceration.
  2. Globocephaloides is a hookworm found in the duodenum that can cause anaemia, hypoproteinaemia and death.
  3. Progamotaenia is a cestode commonly found in the bile ducts - generally not pathogenic
  4. Bertiella obesa is the small intestinal tapeworm of koalas. It can cause debilitation in large numbers and uses an arthropod intermediate host.
  5. Fasciola hepatica - liver fluke out of bile duct
  6. Hydatid cysts as well -> lungs and liver
64
Q

What are some common endoparasites drugs for marsupials and which shouldn’t you use and why

A

Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg S/C, moxidectin 0.2 mg/kg S/C, fenbendazole (most common) 7.5 mg/kg PO or oxfendazole 5 mg/kg PO (generally work better than ML), Praziquantel 5 mg/kg.
§ Mebendazole causes bone marrow suppression and death

65
Q

Antechinus mortality what is it and what results, anatomical structures of these animals

A

NORMAL
○ Occurs each year in male antechinus immediately following the breeding season.
§ This is the result of elevated corticosteroid levels leading to a range of syndromes including anaemia, reduced splenic follicle size
§ heavy Babesia parasitaemias, Listeria monocytogenes induced hepatic necrosis and gastrointestinal haemorrhage due to gastric and duodenal ulcers.
§ Large testicles (different from mice), large carnivore teeth (carnivores)

66
Q

Nephrosis what marsupials most common in, cause, clinical signs, pathology, treatment and control

A

Koalas:
○ Often secondary to a period of dehydration leading to decreased renal blood flow, ischaemic tubular necrosis and renal failure.
§ Thought to be because of climate change (increase temp, decrease water in diet), chlamydia infection,
○ Clinical Signs: Depression, anorexia, polydipsia and elevated blood urea.
○ Pathology: Tubular necrosis and fibrosis often associated with the presence of oxalate crystals. Pyelonephritis.
○ Treatment: IV fluids.
○ Control: Provide access to water and fresh eucalyptus leaves. Periods of dehydration should be treated aggressively with intravenous fluids.

67
Q

emaciated koala what is the common cause and what need to check

A

if don’t have teeth left then no point persisting as will just die of starvation

  • IF HAVE TEETH
  • Blood and run urea -> testing for nephrosis, also history with head in water bowl suggesting kidney disease
68
Q

Echidna what are 2 common diseases/traumas

A

1) Very sensitive and long unprotected beaks -> if smashed beck then not much you can do
2) Sparganosis -> Spirometra parasite worm that goes through dogs, echidna act as intermediate host, subcutaneous swelling
○ Treatable just need surgery

69
Q

rabbits do they vomit and common GIT diseases

A

no vomiting
- Gut stasis (gastric, caecal, atony): stress, pain, diet
- Liver lob torsion (1.5 years - 6 years old)
- Coccidia (Emeria perforans, magna, media, perforans, intestinalis)
○ Most common clinical cases <6months old
○ Most common if trying to treat for other things
- Antibiotic induced
- GI obstruction: Trichobezoars (large amount of fur within stomach), tumours (lymphoma)
- Dehydration
- Tapeworm
- Adhesions
- Astovirus

70
Q

Guinea pigs do they vomit and common GIT diseases

A

no vomiting

  • GDV - not very common
  • Antibiotic induced enteritis - hind-gut fermenters
  • Gut stasis: dental disease, stress, pain
  • Parasitic: coccidia
  • Faecal impaction/obstructive disease
71
Q

What are some common ferret GIT diseases

A
  • Inflammatory bowl disease (IBD)
  • Lymphoma
  • Eosinophilic infiltrate
  • Viral
    ○ Distemper, ferret enteric coronavirus (FRECV: epizootic catatthal enteritis), ferret systemic coronavirus (FRSCV), rota virus
  • Parasites: coccidia (Eimeria, furonis), Giardia duodenalis
  • Bacterial: salmonella, campylobacter, helicobacter mustelae
    ○ Generally due to people giving them live pray
  • FB
  • Extrahepatic obstructions, cholestasis
  • Gastric ulcer
  • Rare: pancreatitis, GDV
72
Q

What are the 3 important things in working up GIT cases for exotics

A

1) history
2) physical examination
3) diagnostics

73
Q

What is important about history in working up exotic GIT cases

A

History -> what have the owners done, what has the animal done,
○ Husbandry and what is happening
§ Diet, other pets, housing, vaccinations, overcrowding/new additions, fever, weight loss/gain, vomiting, energy levels
§ Faecal changes: diarrhoea, constipation, faecal pellet/amount
□ Rabbit - commonly present with ‘diarrhoea’, but maybe rabbit just not eating cecotropes (more sticky poo that normally eat)
§ Medications: Antiparasitics, antibiotics, steroids

74
Q

What is important about the physical exam for GIT in exotics especially rabbits, guinea pigs and ferrets

A

○ Usually full physical examination
○ Attention: abdominal pain, distention or mass, gut sounds
○ Rabbits: dental health, hocks, abdominal auscultation, tympany
○ Guinea pigs: tympany, abdominal auscultation
○ Ferrets: adenomegaly

75
Q

What is important with diagnostics for GIT diseases in exotics

A

○ Blood work: WBCC (is it anaemic), glucose (high glucose worse prognostic), lactate (not as good), liver enzymes, electrolytes, protein
○ Faecal: float (rule out coccidia), direct smear, centrifuge, gram stain, culture
○ Imaging: ultrasound, radiographs (gut stasis not good), CT, MRI, fluoroscopy
○ Endoscopy/exploratory laparotomy: cytology, histopathology

76
Q

What is gut stasis, differential and clinical signs

A

symptom not a disease - BUT CAN BE FATAL -> should talk to owner when first come in with rabbit
Differential
- GI obstruction, coccidia, atony, adhesions, uterine adenocarcinoma
Clinical signs
- Faecal production: decreased frequency/decreased size/ absent
- Eating caecatrops
- Appetite: decreased/absent/altered
- Recent stressful event
- +/- decreased energy
- Sudden death

77
Q

Gut stasis physical exam results and diagnosis

A

Physical examination results
- Gut sounds: decreased/absent
- Altered abdominal palpation: empty, doughy (normally doughy but can get bad), fluidy, gas
- Painful abdomen
- Concurrent disease (oral MaxFax, Pododermatitis, Parasites, Arthritis, obesity)
Diagnostics
- Variables: severity/identifiable concurrent disease/owners finances
- Options:
○ Oral examination: MUST
○ TPR: (HR <180bpm bradycardia, T <35.1 hypothermia, RR tachypnoea)
○ Blood work:
§ Glucose, PCV/TP/electroytes, renal enzymes, lactate (limited correlation)
○ Blood pressure (<90mmHg hypotension)
○ X-rays: FB, gas pattern (gastric, small intestines, caecum), fluid pattern, mass, arthritis
○ Faecal: coccidia
○ Ultrasound: no use usually: gas obstruction
Fluoroscopy

78
Q

Gut stasis what are the 6 main treatments and what is the most important

A
  1. Rehydration - IV if possible, 2-3XM) - use ear vein -> INITIAL
    ○ Can also use subcutaneous fluids
  2. Analgesia - opioids (GIT issues so only initially) vs NSAIDS (do well) - INITIAL
    ○ Buprenorphine, meloxicam
  3. Prokinetic - varies on area of GI tract
    ○ Metaclopramide (proximal GI) vs Cisapride (whole GI)
    ○ Ranitidine (whole GI and inhibits acid secretion)
  4. Food - syringe feed critical care - 3-4 big meals per day
    ○ 10-15 mins/kg QID-BID
  5. Treatment -> for other concurrent disease - IMPORTANT
  6. Decompress stomach if severe tympany
    Will not get better without treatment but shouldn’t treat quickly
79
Q

What are 7 other GIT problems

A
  1. Trichobezoar -> surgery vs medical management
  2. Foreign body -> surgery vs medical management - CARE - gastric and intestinal wall very thin
    ○ Adhesions form easily
  3. Caecal impaction -> surgery vs medical management
  4. Coccidia -> most small mammals, usually asymptomatic
    - Diagnosis -> histopathology/faecal float
    - Treatment -> toltrazuril , sulfamethazine, hygiene
  5. other parasites -> gross finding, faecal and treat base on parasite
    - Taenia in rats can cause severe disease - if not getting better look for this
  6. liver lobe torsion -> diagnosis via ultrasound, treatment with hepatectomy
  7. biliary cystadenoma -> diagnosis via ultrasound, treatment with partial hepatectomy
80
Q

What are the 3 main GIT problems that can have medical management and what are the options

A

1) trichobezoar
2) foreign body
3) caecal impaciton
Medical generally first options for above
- Fluids: 2-3X M
- Prostaglandin F2 alpha (0.2mg/kg)
- Pineapple juice for trichobezoars
- Mineral oil

81
Q

IBD, eosinophilic gastroenteritis what exotic animal found within, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

A

ferrets

  • All can present with any of the clinical signs -> vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, dysorexia
  • Generally <5 years old
  • Diagnosis - ultrasound (best modality for ferrets, if not this than viral), full thickness biopsy, lymph node
  • Treatment - support, diet (highly digestible protein), immunosuppression (prednisolone 2mg/kg SID, cyclosporine 4mg/kg BID)
82
Q

Lymphoma in ferrets what yeas common in, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis

A
  • Usually 1-2 years visceral, 2-7 years lymph nodes
  • Clinical signs - weight loss, vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia
  • Diagnosis - blood work (+/- leucocytosis), abdominal ultrasound, exploratory laparotomy (full thickness biopsy, lymph nodes)
  • Treatment - chemotherapy - several protocols (prednisolone, vincristine, cyclophosphamide), supportive therapy, vit C
  • Prognosis - uncertain
    ○ T-cell mean 5 months
    ○ B-cell mean 9 months
83
Q

Helicobacter mustelae what animal found within, results in, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

A
  • Most ferrets have the bacteria, older females generally show clinical signs
  • Damages gastric mucosa, inhibits/reduces acid production, auto-immune component
  • Clinical signs -> gastritis +/- ulcers: vomiting, weight loss - 10% population
  • Diagnosis -> histopathology (not full thickness needed - so achieved via endoscope)
  • Treatment -> varied - treat for 14-21 days
    ○ Ranitidine/omeprazole, pepto-bismol, amoxicillin/clarithomycin, metronidazole
84
Q

List 5 main viral GIT issues within small mammals

A

1) FRECV (ferret enteric coronavirus)
2) FRSCV
3) rotavirus
4) rabbit haemorrhagic disease (corona virus)
5) canine distemper virus

85
Q

What is FRECV and FRSCV what animal effect, effects, diagnosis and treatment

A
  1. FRECV -> older ferrets, highly contagious!!!
    ○ Green mucoid diarrhoea (destroys gut lining - villus atrophy)
  2. FRSCV -> younger ferrets
    ○ Abdominal polyadenomegaly, weight loss, anorexia
    Both -> fever, hyperproteinaemia (WOULD THINK OTHERWISE), Anaemia
    Diagnosis - ultrasound, histopathology GI/lymph nodes
    Treatment - none, aim only to reduce inflammatory response and support, usually fatal weeks to months - euthanasia
86
Q

Rotavirus and rabbit haemorrhagic disease (corona virus) what animal within, effects, diagnosis and treatment

A
  1. rotavirus -> juvenile ferrets (mild in rabbits)
    ○ Severe dehydration, foul smelling
    ○ Diagnosis - RT-PCR
    ○ Treatment - antibiotics for 2nd infection, support feeding, hygiene, reduce stocking
  2. Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (corona virus): GI signs, bloating, constipation
    ○ NO treatment, only prevention through vaccination and mosquito control
87
Q

GDV in exotics presentation, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

A
  • Presentation - acute collapse to bloated abdomen and mild depression
    ○ Reduced to absent faecal production, soft faeces
    ○ Inappetence/anorexia
  • Clinical signs - painful, gassy abdomen, tympany
  • Diagnosis - X-ray: dilated gassy stomach, gas filled intestines cranial to stomach
  • Treatment - support (IVFT, analgesia), surgery
88
Q

Antibiotic induced GIT disease in exotics what can result, affected species and main drugs

A
  • Fatal clostridial enterotoxaemia, enteritis, colitis
  • Affected species: rabbit, guinea pigs, chinchillas, hamsters
  • Main drugs: beta lactams: oral penicillins (can give injectables), oral cephalosporins, macrolides (erythromycin), lincosamides, tylosin, tetracyclines (GP)
89
Q

Ferret teeth anatomy when permanent erupt, how many PM, diet, behaviour and dental formula

A
  • Permanent teeth erupt between 7 to 11 weeks of age
  • Supernumerary incisors are common
  • Three premolars only
    Diet - true carnivore
    Behaviour - hunt small vertebrate prey - biting, crushing, tearing, gnawing
    FORMULA
  • upper - I - 3,3 C - 1,1 P - 3,3 M - 1,1
  • lower - I - 3,3, C - 1,1, P - 3,3, M - 2,2
90
Q

Ferret common teeth problems and opening of mouths

A

Common problems
- Fractured and worn canines
- Progressive periodontal disease with plaque, calculus, gingivitis, tooth root abscess
- Congenital malocclusion
Mouth opens all the way - no need for scope

91
Q

Rabbit dental anatomy when deciduous teeth are shed, peg teeth, type of teeth and gape

A
  • Deciduous teeth are shed before or just after birth
  • Second upper incisor, peg teeth, sit behind the first upper incisors, rodents lack peg teeth
  • Aradicular, hypsodont, elodont, anisognathic
  • Narrow gape -> mouth only opens about 1cm -need otoscope and fingers
92
Q

Rabbit dental anatomy part of the tooth, cheek teeth type and dental formula

A

Clinical crown, reserve crown, apex (no true root)
Incisors and cheek teeth
- Cheek teeth are all molariform (no difference between premolars and molars)
FORMULA
- I -2,1 P - 3,2 M - 3,3

93
Q

Dental disease obvious presentations

A 
- Externally visible lesions 
○ Overgrown incisors 
○ Facial deformities
§ Osteomyelitis 
§ Abscesses of soft tissues - hard pus and will have a mineralised capsule too thus need to be removed surgically 
§ Overgrown diverted crowns 
§ Impacted roots 
○ Eyes 
§ Blocked tear ducts
§ Retrobulbar abscess
§ Nasal discharge
94
Q

Dental disease less obvious signs

A 
○ Slobbers - mouth, paw -> stickiness of back of paws, dry discharge, drooling may not be obvious
○ Poor grooming - matted fur, uneaten caecotrophs 
○ Gut stasis
§ Reduced faecal production 
§ Reduced dropping size
§ Inactivity 
§ Reduced appetite 
§ Only eating treats
95
Q

Acquired dental dystrophy cause and what occurs early in disease and sequalae

A

○ Loss of calcium (diet/disease)
○ Injury to tooth and alveolus
○ Congenital malocclusion
- Early disease
○ Weakened ligament and laminar bone (alveolar bone)
○ Altered tooth wear and pressure - malocclusion can lead to overgrowths
- Sequelae
○ Curvature, rotation and impaction of teeth
○ Spur formation -> Ulcers -> changes the teeth wear as well
○ Osteomyelitis
Fractured or crumbling crowns - once the pulp dies and the tooth is no longer growing leads to end stage ADD

96
Q

Acquired dental dystrophy sequele advanced signs

A

○ Bony deformation of mandible and maxilla
○ Extension of infection into soft tissues
○ Impingement on surrounding structures
§ Nasal passages
§ Eyes
§ Tear ducts
○ Without infection teeth eventually stop growing
○ With infection - meltdown

97
Q

Emergency treatment for rabbit teeth

A
  • NEVER USE NAIL CLIPPERS ON RABBIT TEETH -> will fracture the tooth
  • Pain relief
  • Respiratory support
  • Nutrition
    ○ Shorten incisors
    ○ Syringe feed
  • Rehydrate
  • Treat the abscess later
98
Q

What are the 7 steps in the treatment of a dental abscess

A

1) identify the teeth involved
2) extract the tooth
3) instill proloxamer gel or marsupilise
4) check other teeth and other effects
5) pain relief
6) gut support
7) antibiotics

99
Q

In terms of identifying the teeth involved and extracting in dental abscess how perform

A 
1. Identify the teeth involved 
○ Probing 
○ Radiographs or CT
○ Open and debride abscess
§ Caseous debris
§ Capsule (mineralised and fibrous) 
2. Extract tooth 
○ Molar luxators 
○ Incisor luxators 
○ Patience 
○ Don't twist or pull
○ Teeth can grow back from pulp left behind
100
Q

In mandibular incisor abscess, mandibular molars, maxillary incisors and maxillary cheek teeth abscess what should also check

A 
○ Mandibular incisor abscesses 
§ Check tooth 1,2 as well
○ Mandibular molars 
§ Last cheek tooth vessels 
○ Maxillary incisors 
§ Impact on tear ducts 
○ Maxillary cheek teeth 
§ Impact on retrobulbar space
§ Impact on nasal passages
101
Q

for treating tooth abscesses what pain relief, gut support and antibiotics to use

A 
5. Pain relief 
○ Buprenorphine 3 days 
○ Meloxicam 2 weeks  
6. Gut support 
○ Syringe feed 24 hours 
○ close monitoring of dropping 
7. Antibiotics 
○ Based on culture 
○ At least 2 weeks 
○ Monitor gut function

DVM 3 - 2 (40 decks)

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