EXAM REVIEW Flashcards
- the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (causes), and treatment
psychopathology
- a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and
behaviours - behaviours, thoughts, and inner experiences that are atypical, dysfunctional, or dangerous are signs of psychological disorders.
psychological disorder
factors that impact defining something as a psychological disorder (2)
cultural expectations
-Hallucinations is a violation of cultural expectations in Western Societies. People who
report hallucinations are likely to be labeled with a psychological disorder
harmful dysfunction
-Dysfunction occurs when an internal mechanism (e.g., cognition, perception, learning)
breaks down and cannot perform its normal function
- Significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.
- Outside of cultural norms.
- The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction.
- The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in one’s life.
- E.g. difficulty performing appropriate and expected roles.
American Psychological Association (APA) Definition of a Psychological Disorder
- appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms
- requires classification systems that organize psychological disorders systematically
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders:
* Published by the American Psychiatric Association
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Categories (4)
- Diagnostic features – overview of the disorder.
- Diagnostic criteria – specific symptoms required for diagnosis.
- Prevalence – percent of population thought to be afflicted.
- Risk factors
the co-occurrence of two disorders at once
comorbidity
2 types of disorder that are often found in the same person (comorbidity)
Obsessive-compulsive disorder and major depressive disorder frequently occur in the same person.
what classification system is this describing?
- Used to examine general health of populations and monitor prevalence of diseases/health problems internationally.
- Worldwide, the ICD is more frequently used for clinical diagnosis, whereas the DSM is more valued for research.
- DSM includes more explicit disorder criteria as well as extensive explanatory text.
- DSM is the classification system used among U.S. mental health professionals
THE INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF
DISEASES (ICD)
Published by the World Health Organization (WHO)
- psychological
disorders attributed to a force beyond scientific
understanding. - Practitioners of black magic (sorcery).
- Possessed by spirits.
- Witchcraft
supernatural perspective
- Epidemic in Western Europe (11th-17th centuries) in which groups of people would suddenly
begin to dance with wild abandon. - Some would dance for days or weeks, screaming of terrible visions.
supernatural perspective
- View psychological disorders as linked to biological phenomena:
- Genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and brain abnormalities.
- Supported by evidence that most psychological disorders have a genetic component.
biological phenomena
stress model:
Integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder.
Diathesis-Stress Model
Diathesis + Stress → Development of a disorder
Diathesis-Stress Model
- People with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (diathesis) are more likely than
others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological
events. - A diathesis can be a biological or psychological vulnerability.
- Emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and self-defeating thinking
patters, and environmental factors. - Views the cause of psychological disorders as a combination of biological and
psychosocial factors.
psychosocial perspective
an instantaneous reaction to an imminent threat
fear
apprehension, avoidance, and cautiousness regarding a potential threat, danger, or other negative content
anxiety
Characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior.
anxiety disorders
- Effects approximately 25%-30% of the U.S. population during their lifetime.
- More common in women than men.
- Most frequently occurring class of mental disorders.
Involves excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation.
specific phobia
name 5 common phobias
- Acrophobia – heights.
- Aerophobia – flying.
- Arachnophobia – spiders.
- Claustrophobia – enclosed spaces.
- Agoraphobia: intense fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape or receive help if one experiences a panic attack (public transportation, crowds, being outside the home alone)
3 types of learning/conditioning discussed in this chapter:
- Classical Conditioning.
- Child is bitten by dog (US) → dogs become associated with biting (CS) → childexperiences fear around dogs (CR).
- Vicarious Learning.
- Child observes cousin react with fear around spiders → child later expresses the same fears even though spiders have never presented any danger to him.
-Verbal transmission of information.
* A child is continuously told that snakes are dangerous → child starts to fear snakes.
Characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations
in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others, leading to serious impairments in life
social anxiety disorder
- mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations by
reducing the chance of negative social outcomes
-E.g., avoiding eye contact or rehearsing sentences before speaking
safety behaviours
a consistent tendency to show fear and restraint when presented with unfamiliar people or situations.
Behavioral inhibition
characteristics at the biological, psychological, family, community, or cultural level that precede and are associated with a higher likelihood of negative outcomes
risk factors
recurrent and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks.
panic disorder
comorbidity relating to anxiety (name 2 co related disorders)
anxiety disorders & major depressive disorder
a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes
panic attack
name 4 theories behind panic attacks and why they happen:
- genetics
- neurobiological theory
- conditioning theory
- cognitive theory
which of the following theories surrounding panic attacks is this referring to?
43% heritability
genetics
which of the following theories surrounding panic attacks is this referring to?
The idea that locus coeruleus in the brainstem is possibly involved.
- Major source of norepinephrine (neurotransmitter that triggers flight-or-flight response).
-neurobiological theory
which of the following theories surrounding panic attacks is this referring to?
Panic attacks are responses to subtle bodily sensations resembling those normally occurring when one is anxious or frightened
conditoning theory
which of the following theories surrounding panic attacks is this referring to?
individuals with panic disorder are prone to interpret ordinary bodily sensations catastrophically, setting the state for panic attacks.
* In some patients, reducing catastrophic cognitions about sensations has proven
to be as effective as medication in reducing panic attacks
cognitive theory
A relatively continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension
generalized anxiety disorder
name the main theory behind generalized anxiety disorder:
cognitive theory
- Worry represents a mental strategy to avoid more powerful negative emotions perhaps stemming from earlier unpleasant or traumatic experiences.
- Worrying acts a distraction from remembering painful childhood experiences.
persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing
obsessions
Involves thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions).
OCD
name 4 common obsessions:
- Concerns about germs and contamination
- Doubts
- Order and symmetry
- Aggressive or lustful urges
repetitive and ritualistic acts, typically carried out primarily as a means to minimize the distress that obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event
compulsions
Involves a preoccupation with a perceived flaw in the individuals physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people
body dysmorphic disorder
involves great difficulty in discarding possessions, regardless of how valueless/useless they are, usually resulting in an accumulation of items that clutter living or work areas.
hoarding disorder
explain 3 theories as to why individuals have OCD:
- genetics
- conditioning theories
- brain anatomy
which of the following theories surrounding OCD is this referring to?
- 5 times more frequent in first-degree relatives of people with OCD.
- Identical twins - 57% concordance rate.
- Fraternal twins - 22% concordance rate.
- Genes involved regulate the function of serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate.
genetics
which of the following theories surrounding OCD is this referring to?
Symptoms of OCD are learned responses.
- Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus → anxiety or distress.
conditioning theories
- classical and operant conditioning
which of the following theories surrounding OCD is this referring to?
Several interconnected regions that influence perceived emotional value of stimuli and selection of behavioral and cognitive responses
brain anatomy
- involved in learning and
decision making - becomes hyperactive in
people with OCD when
provoked with tasks such
as looking at photos of a
toilet or a pictures hanging
crookedly on a wall
orbitofrontal cortex
what is this describing?
- Individual was exposed to, witnessed, or experienced the details of a traumatic experience (“actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence”) (APA, 2013).
- Symptoms occur for at least one month
PTSD diagnosis criteria
name at least 4 symptoms of PTSD:
- Intrusive and distressing memories of the event
- Flashbacks – states during which individual relives the event and behaves as if it were occurring at that moment
- Avoidance of stimuli connected to the event
- Persistently negative emotional states
- Feelings of detachment from others
- Irritability
- Proneness toward outbursts
- Exaggerated startle response
name at least 4 risk factors of PTSD
- Trauma experience
- Female gender
- Lack of social support
- Subsequent life stress
- Low socioeconomic status
- Low intelligence
- Personal history of mental disorders
- History of childhood adversity
- Family history of mental disorders
- Personality characteristics- neuroticism and somatization (tendency to experience physical symptoms when one encounters stress)
- Possession of one or two short versions of a gene that regulates serotonin
Characterized by massive disruptions in mood and emotions that can cause a distorted out look on life, and impair ability to function.
mood disorders
2 main theories behind why people experience PTSD:
- conditioning theory
- cognitive theory
which of the following theories surrounding PTSD is this referring to?
- Traumatic event (UCS) → Extreme fear and anxiety (UCR).
- Cognitive, emotional, physiological, and environmental cues associated with the
traumatic event become conditioned stimuli. - Traumatic reminders (CS) → Extreme fear and anxiety (CR)
conditioning theory
which of the following theories surrounding PTSD is this referring to?
2 main ideas behind this theory
- Disturbances in memory for the event.
- Individuals cannot remember event in a way that gives meaning and context.
- May become haunted by these fragments involuntarily triggered by stimuli associated with the event.
- Negative appraisals of the trauma and its aftermath (e.g., ”I deserve to be raped because I am stupid”).
- May lead to dysfunctional behavioral patterns that maintain symptoms and prevent changes in the problematic appraisals
cognitive theory
what mood disorder is this referring to
Depression (intense and persistent sadness) is the main feature.
depressive disorder
what mood disorder is this referring to
Mania (extreme elation and agitation) is the main feature
bipolar disorder
“a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or
irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one week.” (APA, 2013)
manic episode
- “Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day” (APA, 2013).
- Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities.
- At least 5 symptoms for at least a two-week period.
- Symptoms cause significant distress or impair normal functioning and are not caused by substances or a medical condition.
major depressive disorder
what symptoms are these referring to:
* Weight loss or weight gain/increased or decreased appetite.
* Difficulty falling asleep or too much sleep.
* Psychomotor agitation or psychomotor retardation.
* Fatigue/loss of energy.
* Feelings of worthlessness or guilt.
* Difficulty concentrating, indecisiveness.
* Suicidal ideation – thoughts of death, thinking about/planning suicide, suicide attempt.
major depressive disorder
comorbidity relating to major depressive disorder (name 2 co related disorders)
anxiety disorders and substance abuse disorders
how many subsets of depression are there?
3
what subset of depression is this?
applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of
major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year.
seasonal pattern
what subset of depression is this?
major depression during pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth
Peripartum onset (postpartum depression)
what subset of depression is this?
depressed moods most of the day nearly every day for at least two years, as well as at least two of the other symptoms of major depression. Chronically sad but do not meet all the criteria for major depression.
Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
Involves mood states that fluctuate between depression and mania
bipolar disorder
what symptoms are these referring to?
- Excessively talkative.
- Excessively irritable.
- Exhibit flight of ideas – talk loudly and rapidly, abruptly switching from one topic to another.
- Easily distracted.
- Exhibit grandiosity – inflated but unjustified self-esteem and self confidence.
- Show little need for sleep.
- Take on several tasks at once.
- Engage in reckless behaviors
symptoms of mania
name the 4 main theories/reasons behind why people have mood disorders
- genetics
- hormones
- neurotransmitters
- brain anatomy
how are genetics related to mood disorders?
relatives have double the risk -specifically with bipolar disorder
how are hormones related to mood disorders?
- Elevated levels of cortisol (stress hormone) are found in depression.
- Cause or consequence of depression?
- A risk factor for future depression.
- Cortisol activates the amygdala and deactivates the prefrontal cortex (disturbances connected to depression).
how are neurotransmitters related to mood disorders?
- Mood disorders often involve
imbalances in neurotransmitters. - Particularly serotonin and
norepinephrine.
These neurotransmitters are involved in bodily functions that are disrupted in mood disorders.
Many medications designed to treat
mood disorders work by altering
neurotransmitter activity in the neural
synapse.
Medications for depression – usually
increase serotonin and norepinephrine
activity.
Medication for bipolar – Lithium, which
blocks norepinephrine activity at the
synapse.
how is brain anatomy related to mood disorders?
Amygdala – important in assessing the emotional significance of stimuli and
experiencing emotions.
* Depressed individuals react to negative emotional stimuli, such as sad faces,with greater amygdala activation than do non-depressed individuals.
* More prone to react emotionally to negative stimuli.
Prefrontal cortex – important in
regulating and controlling emotions.
* Decreased activation in
depressed individuals which
may inhibit its ability to
override negative emotions.
* Greater difficulty controlling
emotional reactions.
what equation is this referring to
cognitive vulnerability + stressful life events → depression
Diathesis-Stress model
what equation is this referring to
1 or 2 short alleles + stressful life events → increasingly likely to experience a depressive episode
genetic vunerability
aaron becks theory that depression-prone people possess mental predispositions to think about
most things in a negative way (depressive schemas)
depressive schemas
- contain themes of loss, failure, rejection, worthlessness, and
inadequacy
what are the 2 cognitive theories behind depression?
- hopelessness theory
- rumination
what cognitive depression theory is this referring to?
Negative thinking – refers to a tendency to perceive negative life events as having stable (”It’s never going to change”) and global (“It’s going to affect my whole life”) causes.
* Creates view that the life event will have negative implications for the person’sfuture and self-worth, increasing likelihood of hopelessness.
Hopelessness - expectation that unpleasant outcomes will occur or desired outcomes will not occur, and there is nothing one can do to prevent such outcomes (seen as the primary cause of depression).
hopelessness theory
what cognitive depression theory is this referring to?
repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and dwelling on depressed symptoms, rather than distracting one’s self from the symptoms or attempting to address them in an active, problem-solving manner.
rumination
Distressed mood → rumination → increased risk and duration of mood
name at least 4 risk factors for suicide
- Substance abuse problems (10 times greater in individuals with alcohol dependence).
- Previous suicide attempts.
- Access to lethal means in which to act (e.g., firearm in the home).
- Precursors – withdrawal from social relationships, feeling like a burden, engaging in reckless and risk-taking behaviors.
- Sense of entrapment (feeling unable to escape feelings or external circumstances).
- Cyberbullying.
- Suicide of a family member.
- Serotonin dysfunction
perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation.
hallucinations
beliefs that are contrary to reality
delusions
disjointed and incoherent thought processes
disorganized thought process
unusual behaviors/movements
disorganized or abnormal motor behaviour
what are these symptoms referring to
decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, drives.
* Avolition – lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity.
* Alogia – reduced speech output.
* Asociality – social withdrawal.
* Anhedonia – inability to experience pleasure
schizophrenia
a mental disorder characterized by disruptions in thought processes, perceptions, emotional responsiveness, and social interactions
schizophrenia
4 reasons for schizophrenia :
- genetics
- neurotransmitters
- brain anatomy
- events during pregnancy
how are genetics related to schizophrenia ?
Risk is 6 times greater if one parent has schizophrenia (even if adopted)
how are neurotransmitters related to schizophrenia ?
Dopamine hypothesis – an overabundance of dopamine or too many dopamine receptors are responsible for the onset and maintenance of schizophrenia.
* Drugs that increase dopamine levels can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms.
* Medications that block dopamine activity reduce the symptoms.
* High levels of dopamine in the limbic system → hallucinations and delusions.
* Low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex → negative symptoms.
how is brain anatomy related to schizophrenia ?
- Enlarged ventricles.
- Reduced gray matter in the frontal lobes.
- Many show less frontal lobe activity when performing cognitive tasks.
how is pregnancy related to schizophrenia ?
- Mother’s emotional stress
- Obstetric complications during birth.
- Mother’s exposure to influenza during the first trimester
Characterized by an individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from their core sense of self
- Memory and identity become disturbed
Dissociative disorders
- Inability to recall important personal information.
- Usually follows a stressful or traumatic experience
Dissociative Amnesia
- individual suddenly wanders away from home, experiences
confusion about their identity, and in some cases may adopt a new identity
- Dissociative fugue
Characterized by recurring episodes of depersonalization, derealization, or both
Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
feelings of “unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with,
one’s whole self or from aspects of the self” (APA 2013)
depersonalization
a sense of ”unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, the world,
be it individuals, inanimate objects, or all surroundings” (APA, 2013)
derealization
- Individual exhibits
two or more separate personalities or identities. - Involves memory gaps for the time during which another identity is in charge.
- Individuals tend to report a history of childhood trauma - Adoption of multiple personalities may serve as a psychologically important coping mechanism for threat and danger.
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Characterized by a pervasive and inflexible personality style that differs markedly from the expectations of the individuals culture and causes distress or impairment.
personality disorders
Characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as
marked impulsivity.
borderline personality disorder
what symptoms are these of?
- Cannot tolerate the thought of being alone – will make frantic efforts to avoid abandonment or separation.
- Relationships are intense and unstable.
- Unstable view of self – might suddenly display a shift in personal attitudes, interests, career plans, and choice of friends.
- May be highly impulsive and may engage in reckless and self-destructive behaviors.
- May sometimes show intense and inappropriate anger.
- Can be moody, sarcastic, bitter and verbally abusive
symptoms of borderline personality disorder
2 main causes of borderline personality disorder
- Core personality traits such as impulsivity and emotional instability show a high degree of heritability.
- Many individuals report childhood abuse.
disorder characterized by complete lack of regard for other people’s rights or feelings.
anti social personality disorder
what symptoms are these of?
- Repeatedly performing illegal acts.
- Lying to or conning others.
- Impulsivity and recklessness.
- Irritability and aggressiveness.
- Failure to act in responsible ways.
- Lack of remorse.
- Overinflated sense of self.
- Superficial charm.
- Lack ability to empathize
antisocial personality disorder
3 main causes of anti social personality disorder:
- genetics
- emotional deficits
- brain anatomy
constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning
ADHD
2 main symptoms of ADHD:
inattention and hyperactivity
3 ADHD symptoms
- genetics
- dopamine transmitters
- brain anatomy
a neurological and developmental disorder that affects how people interact with others, communicate, learn, and behave.
autism spectrum disorder
what are these symptoms referring to?
- Deficits in social interaction (e.g., do not make eye contact, turn head away when spoken to, prefer playing alone).
- Deficits in communication (e.g., one word responses, difficulty maintaining
conversation, echoed speech, and problems using and understanding nonverbal cues). - Repetitive patterns of behavior or interests
autism spectrum disorder
