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Year 1- A&P > Exam must knows! > Flashcards

Exam must knows! Flashcards

1
Q

2 eg. of functional cells and their functions

A
  1. Nerve cells- brain, direct cell communication, release chemical messages directly on to other cells.
  2. Germ cells- ova/spermatozoo, reproduction, haploid
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2
Q

Homeostasis

A

the tendency of a living organism to keep its internal environment relatively stable despite changes in the external environment

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3
Q

universal recipient

A

AB

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4
Q

universal donor

A

O

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5
Q

GI

2 changes in pregnancy due to progesterone

A
  1. Relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter-> heartburn
  2. Enlarging uterus compresses large intestine
    - > flatulence
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6
Q

Peristalsis vs segmentation

A
  • Segmentation occurs in small intestine, peristalsis occurs all the way from oesophagus to large intestine.
  • In peristalsis, adjacent segments contract/relax, creating wave of movement.
  • In segmentation, non-adjacent segments contract/relax, causing back & forth of food.
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7
Q

Hyperemesis gravidarum

A

intractable and persistent nausea & vomiting

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8
Q

Why avoid lambing/cat faeces?

A

Risk of Toxoplasmosis caused by toxoplasma gondii.

Can cause congenital learning difficulties, blindness

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9
Q

Why avoid soft cheese?

A

Listeriosis caused by bacterium listeria monocytogenes.

Can cause miscarriage, stillbirth

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10
Q

How to take Ferrous Sulphate

A

With orange juice- vit c enhances absorption of non-haem iron.
Avoid taking with tea as tannin will stop absoprtion.
Inform if any side effects.

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11
Q

Dietary fibre

A

Indigestible non-starch polysaccharides.
Found in cereal grains, veg, seeds (large amounts)
Fruit & veg (smaller amounts)

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12
Q

What is negative feedback?

Give eg.

A

A homeostatic process that changes the direction of the stimulus. May increase or decrease stimulus but stimulus is not allowed to continue as it did before.

eg. Regulation of blood sugar levels

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13
Q

2 functions of endocrine system

A
  1. Coordinates homeostatic balance

2. Modifies and induces behavioural changes within the individual.

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14
Q

2 hormones from hypothalamus, released by posterior pituitary gland

A
  1. Oxytocin

2. ADH- antidiuretic hormone

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15
Q

3 endocrine glands & functions

A
  1. Thyroid- metabolism & growth
  2. Thymus- immune system
  3. Gonads- sex steroids that affect reproductive cycles & gamete formation
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16
Q

What is a hormone?

A

Chemical substance secreted by cells that regulate metabolic function of other cells

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17
Q

regulation of HIGH blood sugar levels

A

Insulin is increased.

It stimulates sugar uptake by cells and glycogen formation in liver which decreases blood sugar. (Hypoglycaemic)

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18
Q

regulation of LOW blood sugar levels

A

Glucagon is increased.

It stimulates glycogen breakdown and increases blood sugar. (Hyperglycaemic)

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19
Q

What are neurons?

A

specialised nerve cells that transmit chemical and electrical signals.

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20
Q

2 parts of nervous system

A
  1. Peripheral

2. Central

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21
Q

Glial cells

A

Provide nourishment & support of neurons

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22
Q

2 types of synapse reactions

A
  1. Chemical- a neurotransmitter is released from one cell into another
  2. Electrical- electrical charge of one cell is influenced by the charge in an adjacent cell
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23
Q

Dendrite

A

Projections of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons

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24
Q

Epidural space

A

filled with adipose tissue and dense blood vessel network.

Located between dura mater and surrounding bone of vertebrae.

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25
Q

Synapse

A

gap between the presynaptic cell and the postsynaptic cell where information is traded (nerve impulse)

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26
Q

2 pregnancy changes to Nervous system

A
  1. Grey matter shrinks

2. Pituitary gland enlarges

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27
Q

Function of sensory neurons

A

convert external stimuli from the environment into corresponding internal stimuli

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28
Q

Function of motor neurons

A

project their axons outside of the CNS to directly or indirectly control muscles

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29
Q

Function of interneurons

A

relays nerve impulses between the sensory and motor neurons

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30
Q

2 somatic senses

A
  1. Thermoreceptors- temperature changes

2. Photoreceptors- light energy

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31
Q

1st line of defence

A

skin, mucosa

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32
Q

NK cells

A 
2nd line of defence
Type of lymphocyte 
Found in blood and lymph
Release cytotoxic enzymes which degrade target cell contents.
Target cell undergoes apoptosis.
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33
Q

4 signs of inflammation

A
  1. Pain
  2. Swelling
  3. Heat
  4. Redness
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34
Q

Active vs Passive immunity

A

Active Natural- bacterial/viral infections
Passive Natural- antibodies passed from mother to fetus through placenta/breast milk

Active artificial- vaccine with attenuated pathogens
Passive artificial- injection of gamma globulins for prophylaxis

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35
Q

4 steps of Rhesus incompatibility

A
  1. RH+ father
  2. Rh- mother carrying Rh+ fetus. Rh antigens from fetus circulate in Mother’s blood.
  3. In response to antigens, Mother produces anti-Rh antibodies.
  4. If woman becomes pregnant again with a Rh+ fetus, her anti-Rh antibodies will cross placenta and damage fetal red blood cells.
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36
Q

2 types of vaccine & eg

A

Inactivated- killed microorganisms, may need 2-3 injections eg. tetanus

Live attenuated- full, long lasting response after 1-2 doses eg. MMR

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37
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

Pair of chromosomes with same genes but different alleles

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38
Q

Purpose of Meiosis I is to….

A

separate homologous pairs

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39
Q

Purpose of Meiosis II is to….

A

separate sister chromatids

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40
Q

eg of numerical chromosome disorder

A

Downs syndrome

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41
Q

Cell cycle

A

cycle of stages a cell undergoes to divide and produce new cells

42
Q

Crossing over

A

exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes

43
Q

Autosomes

A

chromosome pairs 1-22

44
Q

23rd chromosome

A

sex

45
Q

Sister chromatids

A

2 identical copies of the same chromosome attached by centromere

46
Q

Functions of ovaries

A
  1. To produce oocytes that can be fertilised and undergo full development
  2. To secrete hormones which prepare the reproductive tract for fertilisation
  3. To establish and support pregnancy
47
Q

Follicular phase

A
  1. After luteal phase, FSH and LH stimulated
  2. Graafian follicle grows and matures
  3. Graafian follicle produces oestrogen -> causes surge in LH
  4. FSH inhibited by oestrogen -> slow growth and then death
  5. Dominant follicle remaining
  6. Inhibin secreted
  7. Forms bulge near surface of ovary for ovulation
48
Q

Ovulation

A
  1. LH matures oocyte and weakens wall of follicle
  2. Dominant follicle ruptures
  3. Secondary oocyte discharged into pelvic cavity
  4. Fimbrae guide to fallopian tube for fertilisation
49
Q

Luteal phase WITH fertilisation

A
  1. Cells of ruptured follicle form corpus luteum -> oestrogen, progesterone, relaxin, inhibin
  2. This develops endometrium which awaits fertilised oocyte
  3. Remains until placenta takes over
50
Q

Luteal phase WITHOUT fertilisation

A
  1. Corpus luteum degenerates -> corpus albicans
  2. Hormones decrease
  3. Low oestrogen & prpgesterone = hypothalamus produces GnRH
  4. Anterior pituitary gland -> FSH
  5. Ovarian cycle starts again
51
Q

Phases of menstrual cycle and their overlap

A
  1. Menstrual phase- beginning of follicular phase
  2. Proliferative phase- follicular phase & ovulation
  3. Secretory phase- ovulation & luteal phase
52
Q

Where is progesterone produced?

A

Ovaries, placenta, adrenal glands

53
Q

Where is FSH produced?

A

Anterior pituitary gland

54
Q

Where is FSH produced?

A

Anterior pituitary gland

55
Q

Corona radiata

A

outer layer of cumulus cells (1st barrier preventing access to sperm) adjacent to zona pellucida

56
Q

Cleavage

A

repeated mitotic cell division of zygote

57
Q

2 sperm abnormalities

A
  1. Teratozoospermia- abnormal morphology

2. Azoospermia- no sperm present within ejaculate

58
Q

Acrosome reaction

purpose & steps involved

A

Triggers changes in the sperm membrane which allow sperm-oocyte binding and then fusion.

  1. Sperm pushes through the corona radiata and binds to zona pellucida.
  2. Vesicles containing acrosomal enzymes are opened, exposing inner acrosomal membrane.
  3. Tunnel digested through zona pellucida by acrosin and acrosomal enzymes.
  4. Sperm propels through the ZP & perivitelline space.
  5. Sperm head now in contact with oocyte surface membrane.
59
Q

How is polyspermy prevented?

A

cortical and zona reactions

60
Q

Describe the cortical and zona reactions

A

Cortical granules are deposited in the perivitelline space -> release enzyme to prevent other sperm from penetrating the egg.
Zona pellucida loses its ability to bind to sperm and in turn the acrosome reaction -> changes texture, zona hardening

61
Q

What happens at the zona pellucida?

A
  1. Capacitated sperm loosely and reversibly adhere to surface of ZP.
  2. Sperm become strongly and irreversibly bound to the ZP.
  3. Many sperm bind to ZP but only a few permeate into perivitelline space.
  4. Only 1 will fuse with oocyte plasma membrane.
62
Q

5 key functions of placenta

A
  1. Oxygenation- transfer of oxygen from maternal to fetal circulation
  2. Protection- infection, some drugs
  3. Excretion- elimination of waste products
  4. Nutrition- amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, minerals, water balance
  5. Endocrine- prostaglandins, hCG, oestrogens, progesterone
63
Q

2 functions of pelvic girdle

A
  1. Supports & protects pelvic organs and some abdominal organs
  2. Protection & support in pregnancy
64
Q

3 bones that make up innominate bones

A
  1. ilium
  2. ischium
  3. pubis
65
Q

compression of baby’s head in birth stimulates the….

A

respiratory centre

66
Q

3 factors that stimulate first breath

A
  1. Light
  2. Sound
  3. Temperature change
67
Q

Lochia

A

Vaginal discharge after birth of baby

68
Q

eg. of type of lochia

A

Lochia alba- yellow/white. Serous fluid and leukocytes

69
Q

2 sources of infection in puerperium

A
  1. Genital tract

2. Urinary system

70
Q

2 hip manoeuvres in NIPE

A
  1. Barlow manoeuvre- dislocatable hip

2. Ortolani manoeuvre- dislocated hip

71
Q

2 ways newborn stabilises blood sugar

A
  1. Feeding

2. Catecholamines- stimulate enzymes in liver to convert glycogen to glucose

72
Q

2 changes to breast in pregnancy

A
  1. Areola darkens

2. Montgomery’s tubercles appear or enlarge

73
Q

Lactogenesis II

A

onset of copious milk supply about 2-4 days after giving birth

74
Q

What could delay lactogenesis II?

A

stressful birth

75
Q

Prolactin

A

produces milk

76
Q

Describe oxytocin reflex & when it is conditioned

A
  1. baby suckles -> impulse to brain
  2. Posterior pituitary gland secretes oxytocin
  3. Muscle cells around alveoli contract and squeeze milk down to baby

Becomes conditioned to respond to baby’s cues for food- oxytocin released in response to handling baby, thinking about feeding, baby crying.

77
Q

Galactopoiesis

A

maintenance of milk supply

78
Q

Feedback Inhibitor of Lactation

A

alerts lactocytes to stop making milk once breast is full. Then, when baby feeds, levels of milk and FIL fall and production recommences. Milk removal generates production -> the more milk removed, the more is made.

79
Q

peak response times for oxytocin and prolactin

A

oxytocin- 30 secs

prolactin- 30 mins

80
Q

Influence of relaxin & progesterone on RENAL SYSTEM

A
  • ureters become atonic and dilated
  • increase in capacity by up to 300mls
  • may result in urinary stasis and risk of infection
81
Q

Effect of growing uterus on RENAL SYSTEM

A

1st trimester- uterus enlarges still in pelvis, leads to decreased bladder capacity and increased micturition.
3rd trimester- presenting part in pelvis.
Expanding uterus puts stress on ureters

82
Q

Why pregnant women prone to UTIs

A
  • Mechanical pressure of enlarging uterus on renal system
  • Relaxing effect of progesterone on smooth muscle of urinary tract
    Both of these make ureters atonic and dilated causing urinary stasis.
    Along with physiologicall immunosuppression of pregnancy.
83
Q 
Respiratory rate
(definition, normal parameter, change in pregnancy)
A

Number of breaths per minute.
Normal- 12 breaths/min
Pregnancy- 15 breaths/min

84
Q

Maternal respiratory acidosis

A
  • Increase muscle activity, increase in oxygen requirement.
  • If contractions occur too frequently with little rest periods, oxygen supply to muscles decreases (ischaemia)
  • Tissue hypoxia with an increase in carbon monoxide and decrease in pH.

Causes cerebral palsy, hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy.

85
Q

Which hormone prevents uterus from contracting?

A

progesterone

86
Q

Define 1st stage of labour

A

Onset of regular coordinated contractions with progressive effacement + dilatation of cervix as uterine contractions pull entire cervix up.

87
Q

3 sections of 1st stage

A
  1. Latent
  2. Active
  3. Transition
88
Q

2 factors thought to play a role in onset of labour

A
  1. MECHANICAL FACTORS- stimulation of uterus + cervix by presenting part and stretching of muscle fibres in uterus, all contribute to contractility.
  2. PROSTAGLANDINS- levels increase in late pregnancy. Implicated in cervical ripening, contractions, dilatation and membrane rupture. Increase uterine sensitivity to oxytocin.
89
Q

2 characteristics of Latent phase

A
  1. Dilatation- up to 4cm
  2. Show- cervix ripens, thins, effaces and mucous plug dislodged.
  3. Cervical ripening- decrease in collagen fibres make it soft + stretchy
90
Q

Fetal Axis Pressure in active labour

A
  • Significant after waters broken
  • Force of contraction transmitted down fetal spine and onto occiput
  • Encourages flexion
  • Once waters broken, oxygen supply to fetus potentially reduced during a contraction.
91
Q

Fundal Dominance in active labour

A
  • Contractions start in fundus near a cornuas
  • Then spread across and down body of uterus.
  • This helps cervix dilate and uterus to expel fetus
92
Q

2 signs a woman is in Transition

A
  • Loss of control
  • Slowing contractions
  • Heavy show
  • Variable urge to push
93
Q

Ferguson’s reflex

A
  • fetal head descent onto pelvic floor
  • nerve receptors
  • oxytocin released
  • oxytocin to uterus
  • stronger contractions
94
Q

3rd stage

A

Period from birth of baby to complete expulsion of the placenta + membranes.

95
Q

What is involved in active management of 3rd stage?

A
  • Uterotonics
  • Cord clamping
  • Controlled cord traction
96
Q

What is important for physiological 3rd stage?

A
  • Calm relaxed environment -> oxytocin
  • Skin to skin
  • early breastfeeding
97
Q

Why examine placenta?

A
  • Retention of any products may impede the uterus’ ability to contract. May impede the action of living ligatures to occlude vessel and prevent bleeding.
  • Retained product may cause infection
  • Vessels- 2 as opposed to 3 may be associated with fetal abnormality
98
Q

5 features of fetal circulation

A
  1. umbilical vein
  2. ductus venosus
  3. foramen ovale
  4. ductus arteriosus
  5. umbilical arteries
99
Q

what does compression of baby’s chest result in?

A

squeezes out lung fluid, then chest expansion which increases the chest capacity and inspiration of air.

100
Q

Puerperium

A

6 week period after birth during which the reproductive system returns to a near pre-pregnant state.

Year 1- A&P (17 decks)

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