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Anatomy > EXAM! > Flashcards

EXAM! Flashcards

1
Q

Primary organs (gonads)

A

• Produce sex cells or gametes(sperm/ovum) and hormones that play vital role in development/maintenance/function of all sex organs
• Ovaries
• Testes
-bc they also secrete hormones, they function as endocrine glands

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2
Q

Accessory organs

A

all other gentitalia in both sexes besides the ovaries and testes
• Internal glands/ducts that nourish the gametes and transport them towards the outside of body
• External genitalia

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3
Q

describe the reason for the location of the testes

A
  • External to the body, in the scrotum

* Maintain lower body temperature (provides environment that is about 3 degrees cooler)

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4
Q

what is the pathway that sperm leave the testes to the outside of the body?

A

testes-> duct of epididymis-> ductus deferens-> the ejeculatory duct -> the urethra, which opens at the tip of the penis

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5
Q

what are the accessory sex glands ? where do they empty their secretions?

A

the seminal glands, prostate, and bulbo-urethral glands

  • > these glands produce the bulk of the semen which is sperm plus the secretions of the accessory glands and ducts
  • > which empty their secretions into the sex ducts during ejaculation
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6
Q

how does the scrotum maintain the appropriate temperature for the testes? describe the two main muscles involved

A

the scrotum responds to changes in external temperature:
cold conditions- testes are pulled up toward the warm body wall and the scrotal skin wrinkles to increase its thickness and reduce heat loss
• these actions are controlled by muscles within the scrotum:
1. dartos muscle: a layer of smooth muscle in the superficial fascia, is responsible for wrinkling the scrotal skin and reducing SA
2. cremaster muscle: responsible for elevating the testes. under hot conditions these muscles relax so scrotal skin is flaccid/loose and testes hang low to increase the skin surface available to cooling/sweating (and further away from warm trunk)

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7
Q

tunica vaginalis ?

A

within the scrotum, each testes is posterior to and partially enclosed by a serous sac called the tunica vaginalis.

  • > this sac develops as an outpocketing of the abdominal peritoneal cavity that precedes the descending testes into the scrotum
  • > consists of a superficial parietal layer, an intermediate cavity containing serous fluid, and a deeper visceral layer that hugs surface of the testes
  • > therefore, testes are still retroperitoneal
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8
Q

Tunica albuginea

A

a fibrous capsule of the testis.
-spetal extensions of the tunica albuginea project inward to divide the testes into wedge-shaped compartments called lobules each containing 1-4 coiled seminiferous tubules(the actual sperm factories)

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9
Q

what is the pampiniform plexus?

A

venous network in the scrotum

  • > testicular veins arise from this network
  • > the veins of this plexus which surround the testicular arteries, absorb heat from arterial blood, cooling it before it enters the testes and thereby keeping the testes cool (counter current heat exchange)
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10
Q

why does it cause agonizing pain and nausea when the testes are hit forcefully?

A

because there are abundant visceral sensory nerves that transmit impulses that result in pain

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11
Q

Spermatogenic cells

A

=Sperm stem cells
these cells are in the process of forming sperm, or spermatogenesis which begins at puberty (400 million sperm formed each day in the adult male)
->spermatogonia (sperm seed) differentiate as they move towards lumen ->primary/secondary spermatocytes-> spermatids->sperm

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12
Q

Sustenocytes (sertoli cells)

A

surround spermatogenic cells and assist sperm production:

  • convey nutrients to the stem cells and move them to the tubule lumen
  • phagocytize the cytoplasm that is shed during sperm formation
  • secretes testicular fluid into the tubule lumen which helps move/push sperm through the tubule and out the testes
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13
Q

Myoid cells

A

Several layers of smooth-muscle-like myloid cells surround the seminiferous tubules which rhythmically contract and may help to squeeze sperm/fluid through the tubules and out testes

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14
Q

Interstitial cells

A

Connective tissue between the seminiferous tubules contains clusters of interstitial cells that make/secret the male sex hormones, or androgens such as testosterone
->secretion of testosterone is controlled bu LH hormone

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15
Q

epididymis

A

where sperm mature

  • > the head of the epididymis contains the efferent ductules, which empty into the duct of the epididymis (highly coiled duct that completes the head and forms all the body and tail of this organ.
  • sperm can be stored here for several months, after they are phagocytized by epithelial cells of the duct of the epididymis
  • where sperm are ejaculated from
  • have to increase SA to fit all the sperm and keep them alive as they move through the lumen of duct
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16
Q

what are the reproductive ducts?

A
  • Epididymis
  • Vas deferens
  • Urethra
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17
Q

the ductus deferens (or vas dererens) function/position

A
  • > stores and transports sperm during ejaculation
  • > its distil end expands as the ampulla of the ductus deferens and then joins with the duct of the seminal gland to form the short ejaculatory duct
  • > each ejaculatory duct runs within the prostate where it runs into the prostatic urethra
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18
Q

describe the wall of the ductus deferens

A
  • > an inner mucosa
  • > an extremely thick muscularis. During ejaculation, the smooth muscle in the muscularis creates strong peristaltic waves that rapidly propel sperm through the ductus deferens to the urethra
  • > an outer adventitia of connective tissue
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19
Q

the spermatic cord

A

->the ductus deferens is the largest component of the spermatic cord which also contains the testicular vessels and nerves
->superior part runs through the inguinal canal and the inferior part lies in the scrotum
• Testicular artery
• Vas deferens
• Nerve fibers
• Pampiniform venous plexus
• Absorb heat from artery

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20
Q

three parts of the male urethra

A

prostatic urethra in the prostate , the intermediate part of the urethra in the urogenital diaphragm and the spongy urethra in the penis

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21
Q

the seminal glands (seminal vesicles)

A

-> lie on surface of the bladder
-> gland is emptied during ejaculation
->secretions of these glands constitute about 60% of the semen volume and is a viscous fluid that contains:
• Fructose, and other sugars to nourish sperm on journey
• Prostaglandins- stimulate contraction of the uterus to help move sperm through female reproductive tract
• Substances that suppress female immune response against semen in females
• Substances that enhance sperm motility
• Enzymes that clot the ejaculated semen in the vagina and then liquefy the semen so that the sperm can swim out

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22
Q

the prostate gland

A

encircles the first part of the urethra and has three classes of glands: main, submucosal, and mucosal glands

  • > the glands are embedded in a mass of dense connective tissue and smooth muscle that is called the fibromuscular stroma
  • > the stroma muscles contract during ejaculation which squeeze the prostate secretion(1/3 semen vol) into the urethra
  • > secretion enhances sperm mobility and includes enzymes that that clot and liquify ejaculated semen such as PSA
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23
Q

Bulbo-urethral Gland

A

pea sized glands posterior to the prostate, within the urogenital diaphragm
• produce a mucous that can enter the spongy urethra when a man is sexually excited prior to ejaculation. This mucous neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra and lubricates the urethra to smooth the passage of semen during ejaculation

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24
Q

what are the three long cylindrical bodies of erectile tissue in the penis called?

A

Corpus spongiosum: erectile body surrounding the spongy urethra. it is enlarged distally where it forms the glans penis and proximally where it forms a part of the root called the bulb of the penis
Corpora cavernosa: Paired dorsal erectile bodies that make up most of the mass of the penis. their proximal ends in the root are the cura (legs) of the penis

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25
Q

describe how the penis becomes erect

A

erection results from engorgement of the erectile bodies with blood. During sexual stimulation, parasympathetic innervation dilates arteries supplying erectile bodies, increasing the flow of blood to the vascular spaces within. the smooth muscle in these bodies relaxes allowing the bodies to expand as blood enters them. as the erectile bodies begin to swell, they press on the veins that normally drain them, slowing venous drainage and maintaining engorgement

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26
Q

describe ejaculation

A

under sympathetic control

  • > begins with a strong sympathetically induced contraction of smooth musculature throughout the reproductive ducts and glands, which squeezes the semen toward and into the urethra.
  • > at the same time, somatic contraction of the bulbo-spongiosus muscle of the penis rapidly squeezes the semen onward through the spongy urethra and out the body
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27
Q

what is the male perineum

A

contains the scrotum, the root of the penis and the anus

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28
Q

describe the three stages of spermatogenesis

A

stage 1-
formation of spermatocytes: spermatogonia divide vigorously and continuously by mitosis. each division forms two distinctive daughter cells: type A which remain at the basal lamina to maintain the germ line and type B cells which move toward the lumen to become primary spermatocytes
stage 2-
Meiosis: the spermatocytes undergo meiosis (diploid ->haploid). the cells undergoing meiosis 1 are primary spermatocytes which each produce two secondary spermatocytes which undergo meiosis II and produce spermatids(4 per primary spermatocyte)
stage 3-
spermiogenesis: spermatids differentiate into sperm as it fashions a tail and sheds superfluous cytoplasm. the resulting sperm cell has a head with an acrosome, a midpiece with mitochondria and a tail which is an elaborate flagellum. the newly formed sperm enter the lumen of the seminiferous tubule

29
Q

what divides the seminiferous tubules into two compartments

A

the sustentocytes which are bound to each other by tight junctions

  1. the basal compartment- extends from the basal lamina to the tight junctions
  2. the adluminal compartment- lies internal to the tight junctions and includes the more advanced spermatocytes and the lumen of the tubule
30
Q

how does the blood testis barrier protect the developing sperm from attack by the immune system?

A

the tight junctions between the sustenocytes constitute the blood testis barrier. sperm and late stage spermatocytes produce unique proteins that the immune system identifies as foreign and would therefore destroy these sperm if exposed to them, resulting in sterility. the developing sperm need to pass this blood testis barrier to get to the lumen and so the tight junctions allow them to pass and then reform as they move through.

31
Q

what two hormones control spermatogenesis

A

FSH from the anterior pituitary and testosterone produced from the interstitial cells of the testes

32
Q

what is a herniated intestine

A

when intestine comes out of the aponeurosis through the inguinal canal. it may go back in place by itself if pressure is reduced

33
Q

what are the accessory ducts of the female

A

the uterine tubes, where fertilization occurs; the uterus, where the embryo develops; and the vagina, which acts as a birth canal and receives the penis during sex

34
Q

what what are the female external genitalia?

A 
the vulva (includes the mons pubis, the labia, the clitoris, and structures associated with the vestibule)
->the milk-producing mammary glands are also considered here because of their reproductive function in nourishing the infant
35
Q

describe the gross anatomy of the ovaries

A

they are retroperitoneal but are surrounded by the peritoneal cavity and held in place by mesenteries and ligaments derived from peritoneum

  • > the mesentery of the ovary, the horizontal mesovarium, is part of the broad ligament (large fold of peritoneum)
  • > the suspensory ligament of the ovary attaches the ovaries to the lateral pelvic wall
  • > the ovaries are anchored to the uterus medially by the ovarian ligament
36
Q

how do the ovaries receive blood/O2

A

the ovarian arteries (branches from the abdominal aorta) and by the ovarian branches of the uterine arteries which arise from the internal iliac artery
->ovarian arteries reach the ovaries by traveling within the suspensory ligament and through the mesovarium

37
Q

describe the microscopic anatomy of the ovaries

A

surrounded by a fibrous capsule called the tunica albuginea, (which is much thinner than in males) which is covered by a simple cuboidal epithelium called the germinal epithelium
->divided into an outer cortex(houses the developing gametes/oocytes) and an inner medulla(loose con. tissue containing the largest blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels of the ovary

38
Q

what are oocytes contained in?

A

they occur within sac-like multicellular structures called follicles which enlarge as they mature
->1 or 2 follicles mature each month

39
Q

the anatomy/function of the uterine/fallopian tubes (or oviducts)

A

receive the ovulated oocytes and are the site for fertilization. also have non-cilliated cells that secrete substances that nourish the developing oocyte

  • > the infundibulum is an open funnel of the uterine tube that opens into the peritoneal cavity and it has finger-like projections called fimbriae that drape over the ovaries
  • > the ampulla is the location where fertilization usually occurs
  • > the isthmus is the medial third of the uterine tube
  • > tube is supported by a short mesentery called the mesosalpinx (part of the broad ligament)
40
Q

how do the oocytes enter the fallopian tubes from the ovaries

A

the oocytes are released into the peritoneal cavity of the pelvis and then the beating cilia of the fimbriae generate currents in the peritoneal fluid that carry the oocyte/embryo into the uterine tube

41
Q

the uterus internal parts

A

nourish and retain the fertilized egg throughout pregnancy

  • > the cervix forms a tough fibrous ring that severs to keep the uterus closed and the fetus within during pregnancy
  • > the cervical canal communicates with the vagina inferiorly via the external os and with the cavity of the body with the internal os
  • > there are cervical glands that secrete a mucous that fills the cervical canal and covers the external os (block spread of bacteria into uterus and blocks entry of sperm until midcycle when it becomes less viscous)
42
Q

what holds the uterus in place?

A

several ligaments and mesenteries:

mesometrium- anchors uterus to lateral pelvic walls (it is the largest division of the broad ligament)

lateral cervical(cardinal) ligaments- runs horizontally from superior vagina and cervix to lateral pelvic walls

round ligaments of the uterus- paired ligaments that bind uterus to the anterior body wall

Supported mainly by the pelvic floor

43
Q

describe the three basic layers of the uterine wall

A

the perimetrium: the outer serous membrane (is the peritoneum)
the myometrium: middle layer consisting of bundles of smooth muscle that contract during childbirth to expel baby
the endometrium: the mucosal lining of the uterine cavity where the embryo burrows and develops. has secretory and ciliated cells. has uterine glands that change in length as the endometrium thickens and thins

44
Q

describe the two layers of the endometrium

A

the functional layer: thick/inner layer undergoes cyclic changes in response to varying levels of ovarian hormones in the blood and is shed during mensuration
the basal layer: thin layer that is not shed but is responsible for forming the new functional layer after the end of mensuration

45
Q

describe the flow of blood in the uterus

A

the uterine arteries (arise from the internal iliac arteries in the pelvis) send branches into the uterine wall and divide into arcuate arteries that course through the myometrium. radial arteries then reach the endometrium where they give off straight arteries (basal arteries) to the basal layer and spiral arteries to the functional layer. the spiral arteries undergo degeneration and regeneration during each successive mensural cycle and undergo spasms that cause the functional layer to shed

46
Q

describe the prosses of oogenesis

A 
stem cells(oogonia) give rise to the females lifelong supply of oocytes which are arrested in an early stage of meiosis I around the time of birth. the primary oocyte are ovulated from their follicle at puberty in response to LH surge when it then finishes meiosis I and enters meiosis II as a secondary oocyte. it does not finish meiosis II until a sperm penetrates its plasma membrane. only called an ovum after completion of meiosis II.
->results in 1 ovum and 3 smaller polar body cells
47
Q

what is the role of the ovarian and uterine cycles

A

the ovarian cycle stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and the production of oocytes while the uterine cycle prepares the uterine wall for the implantation and nourishing of the fertilized ovum

48
Q

describe the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle

A
  • > cortex contains many thousands of primordial follicles consisting of an oocyte surrounded by follicular cells.
  • > at the start of cycle, 6-12 follicles start to grow by stimulation of FSH.
  • > oocyte grows larger and the follicle is now called a primary follicle. the follicular cells are called granulosa cells once the follicular cells multiply to form a stratified epithelium around the oocyte
  • > the oocyte develops a coat/protective sheath called the zona pellucida
  • > a layer of con. tissue called the theca folliculi condenses around the follicle as the granulosa cells continue to divide. the internal cells of the theca secrete hormones and are stimulated by LH
  • > nearby granulosa cells under influence of FSH, convert androgens into estrogens (stimulate growth/activity of all female sex organs)
  • > fluid filled cavity called the antrum, forms b/w the granulosa cells and the follicle is now an antral follicle
  • > the antrum expands with fluid and surrounds the oocyte as well as a surrounding coat of granulosa cells callde the corona radiata
  • > one follicle attains full size and is a mature ovarian follicle ready to be ovulated
49
Q

describe the ovulation phase of the ovarian cycle

A

occurs halfway through the cycle
->a sudden release of LH causes one oocyte to exit one of the ovaries(leaving the ruptured follicle) into the peritoneal cavity to be swept into the fallopian tube

50
Q

describe the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle

A

the part of the follicle that stays in the ovary collapses and becomes the corpus luteum consisting of the remaining granulosa and theca layers

  • > the corpus luteum is an endocrine gland that secretes estrogens and progesterone which signals the mucosa of the uterus to prepare for implantation
  • > dies after 2 weeks if there is no implantation and becomes a corpus albicans which is eventually phagocytized by macrophages after several months
51
Q

describe the three phases of the uterine cycle

A
  1. the menstrual phase: (days 1-5), the functional layer is shed
  2. the proliferative phase: (days 6-14), the functional layer rebuilds
  3. the secretory phase: (days 15-28), the endometrium prepares for implantation of an embryo
52
Q

what hormones are high during ovulation

A

LH, FSH and estrogens

53
Q

what are the three coats of the vagina wall

A

an outer adventitia of fibrous con. tissue, a muscularis of smooth muscle and an inner mucosa which is marked by transverse folds which stimulate the penis during intercourse
->glycogen from epithelial cells shed into the lumen is fermented by bacteria into lactic acid, the resulting acidity discourages the growth of harmful bacteria but is also hostile to the sperm

54
Q

what secretes the lubricating mucus into the vaginal orifice during sexual arousal to facilitate the entry of the penis

A

the two pea-sized greater vestibular glands

55
Q

the clitoris

A

homologous to the penis

  • > has erectile tissue and fills/swells with blood from sexual stimulation
  • > body of the clitoris contains paired corpora cavernosa which continue posteriorly into crura
56
Q 
***********
mammary glands (breasts)
A

are modified sweat glands present in both sexes but function only in lactating females in response to hormonal stimulation
->form as part of the skin and are not really part of the reproductive system but are an extension of the integumentary system

57
Q

the areola of the mammary glands?

A

-> the areola is a ring of pigmented skin surrounding the nipple and serves to minimize chapping and cracking of the skin of the nipple by producing an oily sebum from large sebaceous glands

58
Q

describe where milk is produced and stored

A

the lobes of the breast consist of smaller units called lobules which are composed of tiny alveolar clusters whose walls consist of milk secreting cells.

  • > the milk passes through progressively larger ducts until it reaches the largest ducts called lactiferous ducts which have a dilated region called the lactiferous sinus where milk accumulates during nursing
  • > lobules and alveoli absent in non-pregnant women
59
Q

what is the cortical reaction

A

granules in the oocytes secrete enzymes into the extracellular space beneath the zona pellucida which alter the zona pellucida and destroy the sperm receptors preventing any other sperm from binding/entering the egg

60
Q

implantation including the role of the layers of the blastocyst

A
  • > Reaches the uterus after ~4 days
  • > Spends 2 days floating around where the blastocyst hatches by digesting part of the zona pellucida to create a large opening and squeezing through it
  • > about 6 days after fertilization the blastocyst begins burrowing into the endometrium (implantation)
  • > the blastocyst has an inner cell mass (future embryo) and an outer trophoblast (nourishment generator)
  • > trophoblast cells proliferate and form two distinct layers: an inner cytotrophoblast (where cell proliferation occurs) and an outer layer or syncytiotrophoblast (where cells lose their plasma membranes and fuse into a multicellular mass of cytoplasm) which digests the uterine cells it contacts
61
Q

role of lucunae in implantation

A

once the blastocyst becomes deeply embedded within the uterine lining, cleft-like spaces (lucunae) then open within the syncytiotrophoblast and quickly fill with maternal blood which is now their ultimate source of nourishment

62
Q

how is the placenta formed

A

from contributions from the embryonic trophoblast cells
and maternal endometrial cells
->the proliferating trophoblast gives rise to a layer of extraembryonic mesoderm which along with the trophoblast layers make up the chorion
->embryo connects to the chorion through a body stock which forms the core of the future umbilical cord
->the chorionic villi develop capillaries that connect to the umbilical blood vessels growing from the embryo
->nutrients/waste begin diffusing b/w the two separate bloodstreams(embryonic and maternal) across the villi
->the decidua basalis (mothers endometrium) and the chorionic villi make up the placenta which nourishes the fetus for 6 more months (given the name placenta once it it achieves its pancake shape at the start of month 4)

63
Q

what is the placental barrier?

A

substances must pass through the placental barrier to travel b/w maternal and fetal blood

  • > barrier consists of all three layers of chorionic villus (syncytiotrophoblast, cytotrophoblast, extraembryonic mesoderm)
  • sugar, fats, O2, antibodies go to fetus, urea and CO2 go to mother
  • many viruses and drugs can pass through placenta to fetus
64
Q

what hormones maintain the uterus in its pregnant state

A

progesterone and human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) secreted by the syncytiotrophoblast

65
Q

what hormones promote labour

A

estrogen and corticotrophin releasing hormone

66
Q

what are the three stages of labour (expelling the infant from the uterus)

A
  1. dilation: begins with the first contractions of the uterus and ends with the cervix fully dilated by the babies head (6-12 hours or more)
  2. expulsion: from full dilation to delivery. uterine contractions become stronger (~50mins in first birth)
  3. placental stages: delivery of the placenta as it detaches from the uterine wall via forceful uterine contractions
67
Q

what hormones does the placenta produce

A

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), progesterone, estrogen, and human placental lactogen (hPL)

68
Q

describe the function of the fetal structures and the name of the post-natal structure of the following:

foramen ovale
ductus arteriosus 
ductus venosus
umbilical arteries 
umbilical vein
A

foramen ovale: diverts blood from right atrium to left atrium and bypasses the pulmonary circuit
postnatal structure= fossa ovalis

ductus arteriosus: diverts blood from pulmonary trunk to the aorta and bypasses pulmonary circuit
postnatal structure = ligamentum arteriosum

ductus venosus: carries blood from the umbilical vein through the liver and into the IVC
postnatal structure = ligamentum venosum

umbilical arteries: paired vessels carrying O2 poor blood from fetus to placenta
postnatal structure = median umbilical ligaments

umbilical vein: single vessel carrying O2 rich blood from placenta to fetus
postnatal structure = round ligament of liver (ligamentum teres)

69
Q

what position does the baby have to be in for parturition

A

Baby has to be head down and face towards your butt (back of body). Once head gets to pelvic region, dilation occurs and the baby rotates so that it is facing the back and in correct position

Anatomy (10 decks)

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