Exam 4 Lecture Notes Flashcards
required to maintain partial pressure gradients for oxygen to diffuse to pulmonary capillaries
ventilation
ultimately supports cellular respiration
ventilation
decrease in oxygen
hypoxia
complete lack of oxygen
anoxia
necessary for movement of oxygen
pressure gradient
conducting zone has what
lots of hyaline cartilage
conducting zone does what
treats the air
respiratory zone is what
very vasculaized
where does exchange occur (zone and structure)
respiratory zone, alveoli
diaphragm action inhalation
diaphram lowers with contraction, increasing volume in pleural cavity which causes lungs other expand along with cavity, decreasing pressure within them… air rushes into lower pressure area
what is a diaphragm and where does it insert
sheet of muscle, inserts on itself
what happens to diaphragm during exhalation
it relaxes, moves up
when diaphragm contracts, how does it move
moves down
why does diaphragm move down during contraction
helps with volume change
analogy of relationship between lung and pleural sac
lollipop and water filled balloon
which muscles are used all the time
primary respiratory muscles
which group of muscles are used during exertion
accessory respiratory muscles
which muscles are primary respiratory
diaphram, external intercostals
tension pneumothorax aka
collapsed lung
what happens to gradient in collapsed lung
gradient is lost causing air to get into pleural cavity
what cause collapsed lung
puncture to lung, thinning of walls of alveoli causing problems to outside of lungs but inside pleural cavity causing collapse
air in pleural cavity called what
pneumothorax
what actually happens with tension pneumothroax
can push heart against stable lung
how is tension pneumothorax fixed
sucking air out of pleural cavity
purpose of nasal bones
increase surface area of initially incoming air
4 sinuses
frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary
what do sinuses do/ properties
contain respiratory mucous membranes, connect to nasal cavity, create mucus, humidify and warm inhaled air
nasal cavity function
moistens, warms, filters air
once air is moistened and warmed in nasal cavity where does it go
nasopharynx
what is respiratory mucosa
ciliated epithelium with goblet cells and laminate propria underneath
lamina propria contains what kind of properties
immune system properties
submucosa ct contains what
mucus and serous glands that discharge to surface
serous glands release what
fluid with lysozyme
alveoli can be easily damaged by
debris, pathogens
main layers of trachea anatomy
mucosa, submucosa, hyaline cartilage
what makes up mucosa in trachea
respiratory epithelium, lamina propria
what fibers does laminate propria contain
elastin
submucosa contains what
seromucous glands
crossover between airway and digestive tract
pharynx
pharynx is crossover between what
airway and digestive tract
what is nasopharynx
air passage only, closed by uvula during swallowing
nasopharynx contains what
pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil, opening for auditory tube
oropharynx is what
junction of 2 pathways
stratified epith in oropharynx typical of what and does what
typical of digestive tract, protects against abrasion
oropharynx contains what
palatine and lingual tonsils
tonsils are like what and contain what
like lymph nodes, contain lymphocytes and defend against airborne pathogens
which tonsils are easiest to look at
palatine
extends to epiglottis and esophagus
laryngopharnyx
function of epiglottis
tilts downward during swallowing to prevent food.liquid from entering airway
epiglottis made of what
elastic cartilage
larynx external anatomy top to bottom
epiglottis, hyoid bone, thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, tracheal cartilages
where is tracheostomy
between tracheal cartilage near larynx
what happens to cartilage in larynx
gains more and more calcium over time, that’s why voices change as we get older
vocal cords attached where
between thyroid and arytenoid cartilages
where does sound come from
vibration of soft tissue
arytenoid cart does what
moves vocal cords to due muscle attached here
secondary palate = what
hard palate + soft palate
speech involves what
expelled air passing by vocal cords, vibrating them to make sound
how is sound altered
changes to resonation, tension on cords (pitch), speed of air (loudness) and brief stoppages or restrictions to airflow
resonance comes form what
size of nasal cavity, oral cavity and vocal tract
tongue influences what in speech
oral cavity and vocal tract
what is trachea and what does it do
c shaped rings of hyaline cartilage stiffen trachea to keep it open with pressure changes, elastic ligaments between rings
where does trachea branch to
left and right bronchi
bronchi diameter controlled by what
ANS
sympathetic NS does what to bronchi
dilates (fight or flight)
trachea prod what kinds of secretion
mucous and serous secretions
how is the diameters of trachea controlled
muscles surround various structures
what movement of the trachea helps with coughing
squeezing down
is the split to right and left bronchi even for trachea
no, right is larger
where do drs look to see if someone swallowed something
where the trachea branches off
mucosa of trachea is what
pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium, also has laminate propria
how do elastic fibers run in trachea and what do they help with
lengthwise down trachea , help with exhalation
what are cilia doing
constantly moving, pushing things along, form the mucocilliary elevator
each bronchus divides into what
lobular bronchi, many tertiary bronchi, and eventually many terminal bronchi
what do terminal bronchi lead to
alveoli
lobular bronchi aka
secondary bronchi
right lung contains what lobes
right superior, right middle, right inferior
left lung contains what lobes
left superior , left inferior
lung layers outer to inner
intercostal muscle, parietal layer, pleural cavity, visceral pleura
terminal bronchi wrapped with what
muscle
characteristics of alveoli
thin, no muscle, gas exchange occurs here
walls of alveoli have what
elastin and collagen
air exits alveoli via what from what
passive recoil from elastic fibers
cells at alveoli are what
type I, type ii, macrophages
type I alveoli cells
simple squamous epithelium, needs short distance for diffusion
type 2 alveoli cells
cuboidal, release surfactant, secretory
macrophages in alveoli do what
in case there are little particles, they engulf them
what is surfactant
lipoprotein fluid secretion with detergent capabilities to reduce surface tension along lining of alveoli
surfactant increases what in lung
compliance
when gas meets water, there is what
surface tension
what happens to alveoli without surfactant
shape will collapse from ST due to water wanting to join each other - noncompliance
lipoprotein has what characteristics
hydrophobic and philic ends
what is respiratory distress syndrome in premature new borns
extremely labored breathing
solution to res distress syndrome
tube to lungs to add in artificial surfactant , causes lungs to become compliant
gas exchange requires what
gradient
most O2 is carried on what
hemoglobin
body detects oxygen levels by using what
chemoreceptors in walls of bv
chemoreceptors detect oxygen where
in plasma not in RBC
chemoreceptors checking for o2 levels send impulses where
respiratory center in brainstem
where are the chemoreceptors in vessel walls located in the body
aorta and split
why is hemoglobin loving CO a problem
if given a choice btw co and o2, it will taken co, it cannot be detected bc receptors only look at plasma and not hemoglobin, can lead to death quickly
COPD stands for
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
what conditions fall under COPD
chronic bronchitis, emphysema
what is chronic bronchitis
narrowing of airway increases resistance
emphysema is what
continual injury to alveoli causes elastin breakdown -> reduced recoil -> trouble exhaling
emphysema damages what
respiratory bronchi and alveoli
those with COPD likely to have what
pulmonary fibrosis (not part of COPD)
two groups of organs in the digestive system
alimentary canal (GI) and accessory organs
what are the accessory organs
tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
functions of digestive system
swallowing, chemical digestion, mechanical digestion, absorption, defacation
what design is the digestive system
tube within a tube
what does small intestine do
nutrients and water to blood vessels and lymph nodes
what does large intestine do
water to blood vessels
peritoneal cavity lined with what and what are two layers
serous membrane, parietal and visceral peritoneum
what is mesentery and its function
two fused layers of peritoneum, pathway for blood vessels to get to tube
some mesenteries called what
ligaments
what cavities make up peritoneal cavity
abdominal and pelvic
develop posterior to the peritoneum
retroperitoneal organs
fuse to dorsal body wall during development and are not surrounded by peritoneum on al sides
secondarily retroperitoneal organs
mesenteries store what
fat
mesenteries serve as route for hwat
vascularization and nerves
are most mesenteries dorsal or ventral
dorsal
what is peritonitis
inflammation, infection along GI due to breach, internal bleeding, bacterial infection
seriousness of peritonitis
extremely serious, can cause death
layers of alimentary canal deepest to superficial
mucosa,muscularis mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, mesentery, serosa
another name for serosa
visceral perioneum
describe mucosa layer
inner pink lining - epithelium - tends to be simple columnar, lamina propria layer is present
purpose of lamina propria in alimentary canal , what kind of tissue is it
connective tissue, immune function
what is purpose of muscularis mucosa
gives GI tract tone, does not move anything along
describe submucosa
lots of glands, vascularized, connective tissue, lymph nodes, vessels, nerves
what is nerve plexus
lots of nerves, innervates glands, muscles, important for timing of digestion
what NS allows digestion to occur
parasympathetic
describe muscularis externa
circular and longitudinal smooth muscle layers for physical digestion, motility
what is the muscularis externa at either end
skeletal muscle with voluntary control
in cross section of intestine, what muscle layers are visible
longitudinal layer of smooth muscle, circular layer of smooth muscle
contains neurons that innervate pacemaker cells and glands.
intrinsic plexus
myenteric plexus between what
muscle layers
submucosal plexus signal to what
glands, muscularis mucosa
smooth muscles of GI joined in what, interconnected with what
layers, interconnected with gap junctions
what do smooth muscles of GI not have
motor units,
what do smooth muscles of GI have
pacemakers and contractile cells (single unit)
what inhibits smooth muscles of GI
sympathetic NS
pertaining to smooth muscle contraction, what do they not gave
sarcomeres
what causes contraction of smooth muscle
Ca2+
pacemakers have what kind of potentials, what do they lead to
have cycling potentials, do not always result in APs, it depends on signaling
what things cause an action potential to occur in GI
parasympathetic NS signals, reflex arcs due to stretching of GI, hormones
if membrane potential is below the threshold potential, what happens,
AP won’t occur
if stomach detects protein, what happens
certain hormone is released to start digesting
AP = what
contraction
contraction strength depends on waht
signal
what kind of cells for oral mucosa and where are they
all thick stratified squamous with keratinization, along tongue, gums, hard palate
another term for gums
gingivae
lip epithelium, ketainized or not
not very keratinized
what glands found in the lip
small salivary glands
outside of lip contains what and causes what
lots of vascularization, darker color
attachement on underside of tongue called what
frenulum
what happens if frenulum is too large
can impede speech and suckling
palatoglossal arch made of what
muscle
palatophayngeal arch made of what
muscle
muscles of the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal arches help with
swallowing - lifting the tongue, helping to close off nasopharynx
palatopharngeal arch located wehre
just behind uvula
palatine tonsil is between what
two arches
tongue is attached where
to mandible, sytloid process, and hyoid
what kinds of muscles does tongue have and what do they do
intrinsic - control tongue shape
externtic - control tongue postion
tongue does what when we swallow and why
contracts, keeps food down
palatoglossal muscle does what
lift tongue up
styloglossal muscle does what
move tongue back
genoglossos does what
pull tongue down
what does hyoglossus do
pull tongue down
list extrinsic tongue muscles
palatoglossal, styloglossal, genoglossus, hyoglossus,
teeth are composed of what
bone with higher amounts of hydroxyapatite vs typical bone
are teeth vascularized
not vascularized
teeth are a combo of what
ectoderm and mesoderm
which layer of teeth is the hardest
enamel
wha percent HA in enamel
96%
enamel covers what
crown
enamel has what kind of collagne
no collagen
describe enamel and living cells
once enamel is made it has no living cells
describe dentine
70% HA, makes majority of the tooth
what does HA stand for
hydroxyapatite
describe pulp
loose CT with nerve and blood supply
describe cement
outer bony layer anchoring periodontal ligament formed from cementoblasts
what forms cement
cementoblasts
which layers make up ectoderm and mesoderm in teeth
ectoderm, - enamel
mesoderm, - dentine, pulp, cement
maintenance of enamel
there is none
two dental arches
maxillary and mandibular arch
describe the types of teeth per quadrant
2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3 molars
describe teeth starting at front and moving back
central incisor, lateral incisor, canine, first premolar, second premolar, third premolar aka wisdom tooth
enamel is derived from what
ameloblasts differentiating from ectoderm
what happens to ameloblasts , and what is the result of this
die when tooth erupts and aren’t replaceable, no enamel repair
dentine derived from what
odontoblasts differentiating from NC mesenchyme
odontoblasts receive nutrients from
pulp via tubules
what does dentine have
collagen
collagen can extend from what to what
bone to tooth
tissue types from jaw to bone
alveolar bone, periodontium, acellular cementum/cellular cementum, dentin and prevention, odontoblasts
what kinds of cells make up periodontium
fibroblasts and cementoblasts
what kind of cells found in cellular cementum
cementocytes
how do teeth attach
periodontal ligament
describe periodontal ligament
dense fibrous connective tissue w colagen fibers set at diff angles and arranged in groups
most NC cells are what
mesenchymal
NC cells induce formation oof what
sensory neurons, many skin structures, some skull bones
how teeth develop is similar to what
development of other skin structures
what interacts with teeth development
ectoderm and underlying mesenchyme
first step of teeth development
ectoderm thickens into dental lamina which descends into NC mesenchyme, and a dental papilla condenses underneath. Tooth germ cells form where they meet
when do teeth start to be made
6 week old fetus
describe teeth development in 6 week old fetus
first, ectoderm grows and sinks down into a spot(dental lamina)
dental lamina becomes papilla bc of condensing dental mesenchyme
ameloblasts form on outside of odontoblasts and lay down enamel
what lay down enamel
amelobalsts
ameloblasts form on what
outside of odontoblasts
how is dentin formed
odontoblasts moving down
what is plaque, describe effects
film of debris on teeth – mixture of sugars, bacteria. Bacteria proliferate and make acid that dissolves ename
what are cavities
results from loss of tooth mineral
what is tartar
forms when plaque is not removed and calcifies after mixing with minerals from saliva
which teeth are at more risk of cavities
molars
what are the mastication muscles
masseter, temporalis, lateral and medial pterygoids
what does masseter do
strongly closes jaw
temporalii funciton
closes jaw, can retract
lateral and medial pterygoids do what
protraction, lateral excursion
which gland secretions regulated by ANS
submandibular, sublingual, parotid secretions regulated by ANS
which NS regulates major salivary glands
ANS
describe saliva
95% water, with lysozymes, mucus, and salivary amylase
function of salivary amylase
initial breakdown of starches that continues in stomach
describe muscularis externa in esophagus
superiorly - skeletal muscle
lower - smooth muscle
what happens to stratified squamous in esophagus
stratified squamous mucosa ends, becomes simple columnar in stomach and intestine
what is a hiatal hernia
superior portion of stomach prolapses through the esophageal hiatus
what is great mimic
symptoms of hernia resemble other disorders like heartburn, pain, cough
what does GERD stand for and what is another term for it
gastroesophageal reflux disease, acid reflex
what does GERD cause
heartburn, chest pains, coughing, enamel issues
what does BE stand for
Barrett’s esophagus
describe BE
epithelium lining of lower esophagus changes from stratified squamous to simple columnar as a protective function due to acid coming up
must be converted to chyme to exit pyloric valve
bolus
function of stomach
physical and chemical digestion. some absorption of fat soluble molecules like alcohol
what kills most microbes
acids
gastric secretions elevated by what
hormones, PNS, stretch.
how do proteins affect stomach release
slows it down
what kinds of acid in the stomach
hydrochloric and pepsinogen
what is pepsinogen converted to
pepsin
what do acids do to proteins
break apart proteins into peptides
function of amylase and where is it found
in saliva, begins digestion of carbohydrates
how do proteins affect pepsin levels
increase pepsin released
liquid food is what
chyme
describe stomach histology
simple columnar
what does the simple columnar layer release (stomach)
mucous and gastric secretions
where are acid and pepsinogen made
bottom of the pits of the stomach
what are peptic ulcers
stomach wall injured by acid and enzymes -> injury releases histamine, which stimulates acid production
what layer is missing in peptic ulcers
mucosa
what bacteria can tolerate acid in the stomach
h pylori
how does h pylori cause ulcers
bacteria travels into pits to survive - > infects these pits
shortest section of small intestine
duodenum
function of duodenum
neutralize chyme using goblet and brunners gland
duodenum recieves exocrine secretions from what
liver and pancreas
what are brunners gland
found in submucosa of duodenum, release bicarbonate
if too much acid in duodenum what happens
stomach slows down release, or more chemicals released to neutralize
primary site for absorption
jejunum
which section of small intestine has features for increased surface area
jejunum
what features of the jejunum increase SA
dense plicae circulares, villi, microvilli
mucosa layer of jejunum releases what and where does it go
digestive enzymes to lumen as response to chyme
increased surface area in jejunum is there why
increased contact with digestive enzyme
what releases the last enzymes in jejunum
presence of chyme
ileum absorbs what
b12, bile salts, last nutrients
ileum has large amounts of what
MALT (mucosa associated lymph tissue)
lymphoid tissue that initiates immune response to foreign antigen encountered in various body locations along a mucous layer
MALT
examples of MALT
Peter patches, appendix, tonsils
which layer in ileum contains conc of immune cells
lamina propria
how to tell ileum and jejunum apart
jejunum has much more folds
villi contain what
capillaries and lymph vessels
absorbed molecules in blood are brought to where via what
liver via hepatic portal system
what structures absorb nutrients
villi
pancreas releases exocrine secretions from what
pancreatic duct
pancreas endocrine or exocrine
exocrine
what is released from pancreatic duct
bicarbonate, lipases, amylases, proteases
what do endocrine hormones released from pancreas control
blood sugar
where is bile produced
liver
where is bile stored
gall bladder
where is bile released from
bile duct
function of bile salts
emulsify fat
what section of the liver is gallbladder located
quadrate
what is the section above the gall bladder
caudate
what kind of capillaries are found in the liver
sinusoidal capillaries
what do sinusoidal capillaries in the liver help the liver do
allows it to monitor blood content
hepatocytes in liver do what
modify molecules we’ve absorbed
liver acts as a gateway from what to what
intestines to body
etwork of veins that carries blood from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and spleen to the liver
hepatic portal system
all capillary beds around abdominal cavity do what
lead to hepatic portal
efers to the initial breakdown of a drug in the liver (or gut wall) after it’s absorbed from the digestive tract but before it reaches the systemic circulation.
first pass effect
poor venous blood flow thru scarred liver can lead to what
portal hypertension
portal hypertension can cause what
edema and ascites
what can poor venous blood flow thru liver be caused by
could be cancer or cirrhosis
what is edema
welling caused by excess fluid trapped in the body’s tissues, usually legs
what is ascites
abnormal buildup of fluid in the abdomen, specifically in the peritoneal cavity
in portal hypertension, where does the blood back up and what does fluid come out of
in edema, backs up in legs
in ascites it backs up in abdomin
fluid comes out of capillaries
what are some main structural features of large intestine
appendix, cecum, colon, rectum
what is the function of large intestine
water is reclaimed from what we dumped into digestion so far
what is unique about sigmoid colon
it is a human characteristic bc we stand vertically
what does the appendix do
has some immune function
what is appendicitis
inflammation/infection of appendix
why is appendix more likely to get infected
shit backs up in it bc it is a deadend, commonly is blocked
in large intestine, chyme mixes with what to form what
bacteria to form gut flora
in large intestine, what is reabsorbed from chyme and what is the result of this reabsorption
water, some vitamins are resorbed, yields solid feces
how many microbes in the human body
billions of microbes
some benefits of microbes:
provide body with vitamin K, biotin, help digestion and immunity, inhibit harmful bacteria
what is diverticulosis
presence of pouches in the descending colon
where do pouches form in diverticulosis
in between muscle rings where tissue is weaker
what can diverticulosis turn into
diverticultisis
what is diverticulitis
inflammation of pouches found in descending colon
some examples of inflammatory bowel diseases
crohns disease and ulcerative colitis
inflammation that tends to be confined to ileum or colon
chron’s disease
describe what happens during crohns disease
intestines chronically inflamed form interactions with bacteria, can affect deep layers
what layer of ulcerative colitis affect
colon mucosa
what is cobble stoning common in
Crohns disease
kidney functions
getting rid of waste, balance pH, water/salt, control blood volume and pressure
how much salt is retained in plasma is important in what
blood pressure
what wastes is the kidney getting rid of
urea, creatine, uric acid
what fat is around kidneys
peritoneal
outer portion of kidney
renal cortex
inner portion of kidney
renal medulla
which part of kidney has high salt conc
medulla
where are nephrons
cortex
what do nephrons produce
urine
about how many nephrons does the kidney have
about a million
funnel for urine that receives it from nephrons
renal pelvis
where does renal pelvis lead to
ureter
regions in kidney that have clusters of nephrons
renal pyrimid
lots of vascularization where on the kidney
outside of the kidney
what percent of all cardiac output goes to kidney
22%
almost all blood to the kidney goes to what part within what
glomeruli within cortex
when blood flows thru liver and kidney, what it happening to it
it is being conditioned
which vessel travels to the glomerulus
afferent glomerular arteriole
characteristics of afferent glomerular arteriole
it is wider in diameter, under ANS control
what does ANS control in afferent glomerular arteriole
filration rate
kidney contains what kind of capillaries
fenestrated
why does the kidney contain fenestrated capillaries
higher filtration rate, allows plasma to ooze out
which renal vessel branches to the peri tubular capillaries
efferent glom arteriole
where do preitubular capillaries lead
to beins
peri tubular. capillaries along long nephrons called what
vasa recta
describe blood flow in capillary bed in kidney and why it matters
it is slow, can be exchanged between nephron and capillary bed
what ever isn’t put into peritubule capillaries is what
waste
2 nephron types are … and what is their abundance of each
85% cortical, 15% juxtamedullary
which nephrons have long loops of henle
Jm nephrons
Jm nephrons go where
deep into medulla
nephrons dump into what
collecting ducts
the jm that dive deeply into medullary, describe that
runs through high osmolarity, which can absorb water out of Jm
vasa recta associated with which nephron
Jm
vasa recta transfer what between what
NaCL between limbs
if organism wants to release a hyper osmotic urine, it must have what
area of high osmolarity
what need to be in place with those high osmolarity areas in the body
gates for water for regulation
nephrons receive filtrate where
at the glomerus
how much filtrate is reabsorbed what what is included in that
99% of filtrate, includes water, ions, AA, glucose
what regulates the process of filtrate being reabsorbed
endocrine hormones like ADH, renin, and aldosterone
some substances can be secreted into filtrate from what
peritubular capillary
mainly reabsorption come from what
renal tube to peritubular capillary
what kinds of things are transferred from peritubular capillary to renal tube
acid, h ions, K+ions
kidneys influence BP and heart health why
bc they regulate water/salt balance
if there is a drop in renal flow, what happens
renin is released, it will raise blood volume and vasoconstriction via RAAS pathway
if blood pressure drops what happens
renin begins RAAS PW
how do some drugs lower blood pressure
inhibit the RAAS pathway
where are granular cells located
juxtaglomerular complex
function of granular cells
they stretch, the further they stretch the higher the blood pressure, when they aren’t stretched they detect this and release renin to inc blood pressure
what do macula densa cells sense and what do they do
Na+ levels, signal to granular cells when salt is low to release renin
trigone defined by what
2 ureter opening and urethra
urge to urinate starts when
150 ml in volume
what kind of muscle along walls of bladder
smooth
what muscle squeezes down on bladder
detruser
keeps body from urinating constantly
internal and external sphincter
which sphincter is voluntary
the external one
which gender has larger bladder capacity
males
bladder histology
has transitional epithelium, which has different states depending on the situation
which part of brain is responsible for urination
pons
what is another name for urination
micturition
which NS used for urination
ANS both para and sym
where does ANS innervate in peeing
internal sphincter, detrugar muscle
innervates external sphincter
simple motor neuron
2nd most common type of infection
urinary tract infection
how to urinary tract infections happen
bacteria introduced to urethra multiply and travel to bladder or potentially further
what is it called when bacteria travel to bladder
cystitis
what is it called when bacteria travel to kidney
pyelonephritis
UTI more common in which gender
females
treatment for UTI
antibiotics
caused when hard deposits form in the kidney
kidney stones
what are the deposits that normally form in the kidney
usually calcium, sometimes uric acid
kidney stones enter what and what happens
enter ureter, extreme pain
what inc risk o kidney stones
dehydration
can inc uric acid stones
gout
least common stone and what is it caused by
struvite stone, caused by bacteria in the kidney
