Exam 3 Study Guide Flashcards
explain abduction
moving legs apart, moving arm up
explain adduction
moving towards midline, bringing legs together, dropping arms to side
what is circumduciton
moving a limb or finger so that it describes a cone in space
what is supination
forearm, specifically the radius, rotates lat-
erally so that the palm faces anteriorly (the hand is lying on
its “back,” supine). This is standard anatomical position.
what is pronation
the radius rotates medially so that the
palm faces posteriorly (hand lying “belly” side down, as in
a prone float). Pronation brings the radius across the ulna so
that the two bones form an X.
explain convergent fsicle arrangement
origin of the muscle is broad, and the
fascicles converge toward the tendon of insertion.
explain parallel arrangement of fasicles
the long axes of
the fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle,
and the muscle fibers extend from origin to insertion.
example of fusiform fascile arrangement
biceps crachi
explain pennate pattern of fasicles
fascicles (and thus the
muscle fibers) are short and attach obliquely to a tendon
that runs the whole length of the muscle
explain bipennate
the fascicles insert into the tendon from both sides,
order of first class lever
load fulcrum effort
order of second clas
fulcrum load effort
third class lever order
load effort fulcrum
place where muscle exerts its effect on a bone is called what
insertion point
speed advantage means what
load arm length longer than effort arm
mechancial advantage means what
effort arm longer than load arm
which lever can operate in both a mechanical advantage or a speed depending on arrangement
first class
Which lever style will always have a mechanical advantage
second class
second class always has what kind of advantage
mechanical
always has a speed advantage
3rd class
3rd class always has what advantage
speed
examples of first class lever in body
posterior neck muscles around the atlanto-occipital joint to support head
example of second class lever in body
standing on your tip toes
example of thrid class lever in the body
doing bicep curls,
what is a myotome
region of somite that gives rise to skeletal muscle
what are myoblasts and how do they form skeletal muscle cells
mononucleated progenitor cells that originate from myotome; they differentiate into myocytes, which are early muscle cells, myoblasts form myotubes, which mature into muscle fibers
what is a prime mover
muscle that has the major respon-
sibility for producing a specific movement
whats an antagonist
Muscles that oppose or reverse a particular movement
whats a synergist
help the prime movers, either by adding a little extra force to
the movement being carried out or by reducing undesir-
able extra movements that the prime mover may produce.
explain compartment syndrome
Any injury to a limb
muscle, either traumatic or chronic, can result in
swelling of the muscle. Because the inelastic fascia
surrounding the muscle compartment prohibits
the compartment from expanding, pressure in
the compartment increases and can compress the
vessels and nerves, resulting in incredible pain. This
increased pressure impedes venous drainage from the
compartment, further increasing intracompartmental pressure
leg abductors insert where
lateral side of femur
leg adductors insert wehre
medial side of femur
compartments hold what kind of muscles
synergistic muscles
Which ventricle has thicker muscular walls and why?
left ventricle, pumps blood to the entire body
Internally, the heart is divided longitudinally
by a partition called…
interatrial septum betwen artia and interventricular septum between the ventricles
which side revcieves oxygen poor blood
right side
right side pumps blood to where
lungs
left side recieves what
oxygenated blood
vessels that trasnport blood to and from all body tissues and back to the heart form what
systemic circuit
what is mediastinum
central compartment of the thoracic cavity, located between the two lungs. It contains vital structures like the heart, great blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, thymus, and lymph nodes.
layers of the pericardium outside to in
fibrous pericardium, serous pericardium, (parietal and visceral layers)
layers of the heart wall
epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
epicardium also called what
visceral layer of serous pericardium
where is cardiac skeleton
lies in the plane between the atria
and the ventricles and surrounds all four heart valves rather
like handcuffs
four func of cardiac skeleton
anchors valve cusps, prevents overdilation of valve openings as blood pulses through them, point of attachment for bundles of cardiac muscles in the atria and ventricles, blocks direct spread of electrical impulses from the atria to the ventricles
what do pappillary muscles do
prevent valve prolapse, ensure proper func of AV valve
what do chordae tendonae do
heart strings, connect cusps of AV valve to papillary muscles, prevent valve prolapse
when pressure builds in ventricle, what happens to AV valve
they close
when pressure builds in ventricles, what happens to semilunar valves
forced open
lub sound produced by what
closing of AV valves at start of ventricular contraction
dub sound produced by what
clsoing semilunar valve at end of ventricular contraction
describe a stenotic valve
valves with narrowed openings, such as occur
when cusps have fused or become stiffened by calcium
deposits, cannot open properly
describe insufficient valves
Valves that leak because they fail to
close properly
what sound do insufficient valves make
blowing
what sound do stenotic valves make
click
If there is a stenotic aortic valve, would this be a systolic or diastolic murmur?
systolic
lub whistle dub, type of defect, timing of murmur, valve disorder
stenotic valve defect, systolic timing, stenotic semilunar valve
lub dub whistle type of valve defect, timing of murmur, valve disorder
stenotic valve defect, diastolic timing, stenotic AV valve
lub swish dub, type of valve defect, timing of mumur, valve disorder
insufficient, systolic, inefficient AV valve
lub dub swish type of valve defect, timing of murmur, valve disorder
insufficient, diastolic timing, insufficient semilunar valve
How do cardiac muscle cells differ from skeletal muscles?
Unlike a skeletal muscle cell, which is long, multinu-
cleated, and cylindrically shaped, a cardiac muscle cell is a
short, branching cell (Figure 19.12a) with one or two large,
centrally located nuclei.
What is an intercalated disc?
complex junctions that join cardiac muscle cells
are called intercalated discs (in-ter′kah-la′′ted; “inserted
between”). At these junctions, the sarcolemmas of adjacent
cells interlock through meshing “fingers,” like one empty egg
carton stacked inside another
two region of intercalated disc
transverse regions and longitudinal regions
what are fasciae aherens
desmosome like junctions that funciton to bind adjacent cells
hat do gap junctions between cardiac muscle cells allow for?
allow ions to
pass between cells, transmitting the contractile signal to adja-
cent cells.
What does calcium do when it enters cardiac contractile cells?
triggers and sustains muscle contraction
do cardiac muscle cells have motor units like skeletal muscles
no
How do cardiac contractile cells receive action potentials?
conducting system which is a series of specialized cardiac muscle cells that carries impulses throughout the heart musculature, signalling heart chambers to contract in proper seq
locations of conducting system
SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, Purkenje fibers
parasympathetic innervates what
SA and AV nodes, coronary arteries
sympathetic innervates what
SA and AV nodes, coronary arteries
parasympathetic does what
decreases heart rate
sympathetic does what
increases HR and strength of contraction
Increase strength of contraction from SNS comes from…
additional calcium released to contractile cells
What is AV node delay and what is its purpose?
slowing down of conduction as AP passes from atria to the ventricles, occurs to allow time for atrial contraction
cause of heart block AV
fibrosis, ischemia
sinus sick syndrome cause
age related degeneration, ischemia
effects of sick sinus syndrome
slow HR
what is bradycardia
slow HR
afib cause
hypertension, heart disease
afib effect on heart
rapid, chaotic atrial activity,
vfib cause
severe ischemia (heart attack)
effects of vfib
completely disorganized rapid electical activity in ventricles, no effective cardiac output
what do coronary arteries do
delivers blood to the muscular walls and tissues of the heart
where do right and left coronary arteries branch from
right emerges from the right side of the aorta, left from the left side of aorta
what is a heart attack also known as
myocaridal infarction
what happens during heart attack
blockage of a coronary artery is more complete or
prolonged, the oxygen-starved cardiac muscle cells die—a
what is CAD and brief description
coronary artery disease, arteries supplying the
heart wall are narrowed or blocked
How is CAD related to atherosclerosis?
CAD is caused by atherosclerosis which is buildup of plaques inside the coronary arteries
What are some ways a person can have heart disease?
atherosclerosis, high blood pressure,
What is happening when someone experiences angina?
thoracic pain caused by inadequete oxygenation of heart muscle cells
what is happening when someone experiences myocardial infarction
prolonged or complete blockage of coronary artery, ocygen starved muscle cells die
How could an infarction lead to an additional heart issue(s)?
it kills heart muscle cells, therefore weakening the heart
How could a blood vessel issue possibly lead to heart failure?
reducing blood flow to the heart, increasing hearts workflow
What is heart failure and congestive heart failure?
HF - progressive weakening of the heart as it fails to keep pace with the demands of pumping blood
congestive - heart enlarges greatly while its pumping efficiency declines
Be able to name three issues that could lead to a weakening heart and heart failure.
weakened ventricles due to them being damaged from a heart attack, failure of ventricles to fill completely during diastole, overfilling of the ventricles
How can some heart murmurs make other types of heart disease more likely?
when there is a problem with valves, heart failure or arrythmias (pressure buildup strethcing walls, disrupting signal) could follow,
How can MI make an arrhythmia more likely?
cells that need to conduct AP are dead and cannot, throws flow of heart off
How can congestive heart failure lead to pulmonary edema?
inadequete pumping by left ventricle, blood/fluid backs up into the lungs
What is angioplasty with a stent and how can that help resolve issues with CAD?
it is a catheder inserted into the blocked or narrowed cavity that expands, allowing a stent to be placed, keeping the artery open…. allows blood flow to start again
How does the heart arise in development, which mesoderm area from lateral plate is involved?
blood islands form in the SPANCHNIC MESODERMaround the future head and neck
What unique vessels and openings are a part of fetal circulation?
UMBILICAL vein, dectus venosus, foremen ovale, ductus arteriosus
what is function of foramen ovale
allows blood flow directly from the right atrium to the left atrium, bypasses lungs
function of ductus arteriosus
allows blood to bypass the undeveloped lungs by connecting the pulmonary artery to the aorta,
funciton of ductus venosus
allows blood to bypass the liver and flow directly into inferiro vena cava
Which structure is important for allowing the right ventricle to be exercised during development?
ductus arteriosus
hat is the fate of the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus after birth?
foramen ovale becomes fossa ovalis, ductus arteriosus becomes ligamentum arteriosum
which closes first after birth
ductus arteriosus
How do circulatory changes at birth help close the foramen ovale?
lung expansion, oxygenation, inc left atrial presure, dec right atrial pressure
what is ligamentum arteriosum
small fibrous band of tissue that forms aftter the ductus arteriosus
what is fossa ovalis
small depression in interatrial septum of heart, remenant of foramen ovale
What happens if someone has a patent ductus arteriosus or foramen ovale? Which is more common?
condtions wehre those fetal structures remain open, patent foramenn ovale is much more common
What defines a vein vs. artery?
arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood to the heart
Do arteries always carry oxygenated blood?
no only in the systemic circuit is this true
what is lumen
central blood filled space of blood vessel
what is vasa vasorum
vessels of the vessels, nourish outer half of the wall of the larger vessel
what is endothelium
simple squamous epithelium that lines the lumen of all vessels
what are elastic layers
structures made of elastin fibers that provide flexibility and resileince to blood bessels
what makes up tunica intima
innermost tunic, contains endothelium (in large vessels there is the subendothelial layer)
what makes up the tunica media
circularly arranged sheets of smooth muscle fibers between which lie circular sheets of elastin and collagen fibrils
what makes up tunica extrena
layer of connective tissue, has vassa vasorum on big vessels, contains many collagen and elastic fibers
how does tunica media differ in arteries vs veins
thicker in arteries than in veins
thickest layer of arteries
tunica media
how does tunica externa differ in arteries vs veins
it is thicker in veins
where do you find endothelial cells,
lining the lumen, minimize friction of blood moving across them
wehre can you find connective tissue: blood vessels
tunica externa, collagen and elastin fibers
where can you find elastic and collagen tissue/fibers blood vessel
between smooth muscle in tunica media, in tunica externa
where does the ANS innervate in vessels
tunica media through vasomotor nerve fibers
do vessels constrict or dilate with parasympathetic vs. sympathetic signaling?
sympathetic - vasoconstriction (fight or flight)
parasympathetic - vasodilation (rest and digest)
Where would you find elastic arteries
near the heart, aorta and its major branches
why are thick elastic layers important for vessel function for large arteries?
allows them to serve as low resistnace conduits for conducting blood between ehart and muscular arteries, withstand high pressure, maintain continuous blood flow
Where do you find muscular arteries
distal to elastic arteries and supply groups of organs , individual organs, and parts of organs
why is it functional for these vessels to have thick muscular layers?
regulate blood pressure and distribution to organs
What does vasoconstriction, vasodilation do at such arteries?
contriction increases blood pressure, dilation decreases pressure
What is mean arterial pressure (MAP
average pressure in the arteries throughout one cardiac cycle
how does cardiac output, peripheral resistance influence MAP
when cardiac output is increaed, map increases
when caridac output dec, map dec,
when peripheral resistance inc, map inc
How do changes at arterioles influence peripheral resistance?
when they constrict, resistance inc,
when they dialate, resistance dec
How does the SNS influence arterioles?
adjusts diameter of arterioles throughout the body to regulate systemic blood pressure
How do local chemical factors like O2, CO2, acidity also influence arteriole constriction/dilation?
signal smooth muscle cells to contract or relax, regulating amount of blood sent to cap bed
Is blood always passing through all of your capillaries all of the time?
no, goes where it is demanded
What is the difference between continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoid capillaries
continuous - most common type, strengthened by pericytes, control capillary permiability
fenestrated - have pores,
sinusoid - wide, leaky, fewer cell junctions
where are types of capillaries found
continuous - most organs in the body
fenesterated - where there are high rates of exchange of small molecules between the blood and surrounding tissues
sinusoid - where there is extensive exhange of large molecules
examples of where types of capillaries foind
continuous - skeletal muscles, skin, CNS
fenestrated - small intestine, endocrine glands
sinusoid - bone marrow, spleen,
Where are the pores or clefts in capillaries?
between the endothelial cells
what are capillaries composed of
single layer of endothelial cells
What substances can or cannot leave fenestrated capillaries?
can - small molecules
cannot large molecuesl
How can proteins be transported to and from the blood at capillaries?
go through sinusoid capillaries
How does the anatomy of veins basically differ from arteries?
arteries have thicker walls, arteries have narrow lumen, veins have valves,
Which has a larger tunica externa, tunica media? veins or arteries
tunica media - arteries due to muscle fibers
externa - veins, helps reisit low pressures
which has valves, veins or arteries
veins
Why do veins have mostly collagen in their tunica externa and not elastic fibers?
they are low pressure, need strength not flexibility
Arteries are considered a pressure reservoir while the veins are a volume reservoir – can you explain why?
arteries store pressure generated by the heart, veins have larger lumen and carry lots of blood (volume)
Veins are quite distendable but can constrict to hold less volume. How can veins increase venous return?
constrict, which increases pressure and helps push more blood to the heart
How can skeletal muscle activity increase venous return?
muscle pump mechanism, compresses veins,
MAP= what
diastole pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure
How does the design of cardiac muscle cells allow for increased cardiac output when experiencing higher venous return (Frank-Starling law of the heart)?
higher veinous return = more stretched muscle cells, increases overlap of actin and myosin filaments, allows for more efficient contractile force during systole, pumps more blood
What are varicose veins?
venous valves weaken and blood pools in nearby vessels, enlarged twisted veins most commonly found in legs and feet
consider the consequences of atherosclerosis
reduced blood flow to organs and tissues, increased risk of heart disease and stroke
describe fetal criculation
- oxygenated blood from placenta flows thru umbilical vein towards fetus
- some blood from umbilical vein goes to liver, some to ductus venosus into inf vena cva
- flows ot right atrium
to rigth ventricle then pulm artery - most of blood bypasses lungs thru ductus arteriosus, flows directly to aorta
- some blood flows from right atrium to left atrium via foremen ovale
- moves to left ventricle, pumped to aorta
- deoxygenated blood carried from aorta to umbilical arteries back to placenta
after birth changes to lungs and heart
foramen ovale closes, ductus arteriosus and ductus venosus close also
