Exam 2 Exam guide Flashcards
main components of the axial skeleton
skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage
main components of the appendicular skeleton
pectoral girdle, arms and hands, pelvic girdle, lower limbs
most of cranial vault developed from what
mesoderm derived bones
neural crest derived bones in skull
maxilla, mandible, zygomatic, some cranial
base of skull developed from what
endochondral bone s
parietal bone developed from what
dermal bone
frontal bone developed from what
dermal bone
nasal bone dev from what
neural crest
occipital bone developed from what
endochondrial - mesoderm
maxilla dev from what
neural crest
zygomatic arch developed from hat
neural crest
mandible dev from what
neural crest
vertebrae dev from what
endochondrial mesoderm
which sutures are serrate sutures
coronal, saggittal, lambdoidal suture
what kind of suture is overlapping
squamous sutures aka lap sutures
suture that is straight, butt joints
plane suture
anterior fontanelle located where
between frontal and parietal bone
posterior fontanelle located wehre
between parietal and occipital bone
condition wehre sutures/fontanelles close to early
craniosynostosis
what does craniosynostosis affect
skull shape and brain development
function of the secondary palate
protect nasal cavity, separates oral and nasal cavity, allows for breathing and chewing, efficient swallowing
what comprises the secondary palate
the hard palate and soft palate
cleft palate occurs when…
palatal shelves fail to fuse during embryonic development
effects of a cleft palate
feeding difficulties, speech issues, inc risk of ear infections
treatment of cleft palate
usually surgery in infancy
function of zygomatic arch
protects eye, attachment site for chewing muscle, contributes to facial structure
what is a sclerotome
portion of a somite that gives rise to axial skeleton
what does sclerotome give rise to
vertebrae, intervertebral discs, ribs, base of skull
what does sclerotome arise from
paraxial mesoderm, forms when somites differentiate into 3 regions
what happens when you ave a bulging disc
annulus fibrous weakens, disc protrudes outwards but doesn’t rupture, can press on nearby nerves
what happens when you have a herniated disc
when nucleus pulposus pushes through a tear in the annulus fibrosus, likely to compress spinal nerves
why are bulging and herniated discs most common in the lumbar region
this area experiences the most stress and weight bearing forces
outer layer of intervertebral disc
annulus fibrosus
annulus fibrosus composed of what
tough, fibrous cartilage , made of mostly collagen
gel like inner core of intervertebral disc
nucleus pulposus
what movements does atlas allow
flexion and extension of neck
atlas articulates with skull where
occipital condyles
axis enables what movements
rotation of the head
dens function
pivot point for rotation of the head
function of vertebra prominens
reference pt for identifying level of cervial spine
structure of vertebra prominens
prominent spinous process
fracture of the dens
dens fractures, can cause spinal cord injury or go into brain
How much mobility is provided by the clavicle at the SC
joint?
small amount of movements compared to other joints
What do rotator cuff muscles do?
play a crucial role in the stability and movement of the shoulder
4 rotator cuff muscles
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres Minor
Subscapularis
What parts of the shoulder are most often injured?
rotator cuff, AC joint, glenohumeral joint, labrum
separated shoulder occurs when and what happens
injury to AC joint, ligaments that hold the clavicle to the scapula are stretched or torn
dislocated shoulder occurs when and what happens
humorous is forced out of glenoid cavity , often causes tearing/ stretching of tissues around the shoulder
What does the interosseous
membrane do if the radius experiences high loading?
distributes forces from the radius to the ulna
what bones are broken in colles fracture
distal radius
Which forearm bone articulates more with the
humerus?
ulna
which forearm bone articulates more with the carpals
radius
Where does the femur articulate?
at the hip joint, with the tibia
What can doctors do to
treat an infant with a dislocated hip – hip dysplasia?
use harness that keeps baby’s hips in flexed and abducted position, helps joint develop properly,
closed reduction - manually manipulating femoral head back into the acetabulum while baby is under anesthesia
open reduction - surgical repositioning of femoral head into acetabulum
why is it important to resolve hip dysplasia as early as possible
delaying treatment can lad to permanent joint damage, mobility issues, long term complications
What typically breaks when someone has a ‘broken hip’?
femoral neck fracture
What bones meet at the knee joint?
femur, tibia, patella
what bones meet at the ankle
tibia, fibula, talus
what portions are fractured when someone has a broken ankle
tibia, fibula, medial/lateral malleolus
what portions are fractured when someone has a broken wrist
distal radius
joints that allow little to no movement
synarthorisis
synarthrosis joints often held together by what
fibrous connective tissue or cartilage
examples of synarthosis its
sutures of skull, gomphosis
joints that allow limited movmemtn
amphiarthrosis
amphiarthosis often connected by what
fibrocartilage or ligament
joints that allow a wide range of motion
diarthrosis
diarthrosis enclosed in what
synovial capsule, lines with synovial fluid
joints where bones are connected by dense fibrous connective tissue with little to no movement
fibrous joints
types of fibrous joints
suture, syndesmosis, gomphosis
joints where bones are connected by cartilage, allowing limited movement
cartilaginous joints
symphysis joints made of what
fibrocartilage
structural and functional joint type at knee
synovial and diarthrosis
structural and functional types of joints at skull sutures
fibrous, synarthrosis
structural and functional types of joint at elbow
synovial, diarthrosis
struct and func type of joint at teeth attachment
fibrous, synarthrosis
struct and func type of joint at sternoclavicular
synovial, diarthoris
struct and func type of joint between centra of vertebrae
cartilaginous, amphiarthorsis
struct and func type of joint at pubic symphysis
cartilaginous, amphiarthrosis
struct and func type of joint at TMJ
synovial, diarthrosis
what composes synovial joints
articular cartilage, joint cavity, articular capsule, synovial fluid, reinforcing ligaments, nerves and vessels, articular disc, bursa and tendon sheaths
how is synovial fluid produced
blood is filtered, arising from capillaries in synovial membrane, contains glycoprotein molecules
where is synovial fluid produced
arises from capillaries in the synovial membrane
what does synovial fluid do
nourishes cells in articular cartilages and libricates free surfaces of these cartilages
what is weeping lubrication
squeezing of synovial fluid into and out of the articular cartilages
what is fluid film lubricaiton
synovial fluid is compressed by the load on joint
what type of cartilage at synovial joints is not vascularized
articular cartilages
what are the consequences of some of the cartilages not being vascularized in a synovial joint
limited nutrient supply, regeneration is tough, depends on joint movement to receive nutrients from fluid
what is an articular disc or meniscus
disc of fibrocartilage between two articulating surfaces that fit poorly, the disc fills the gap and improves the fit of the joint
what type of tissue makes a meniscus
fibrocartilage
examples of where meniscus are found
TMJ, sternoclavicular joint, knee joint
what ia bursa
flattened fibrous sac lined by synovial membrane
what is a tendon sheath
elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
function of bursa
reduce friction between body elements
function of tendon sheath
reduce friction onto tendons
What happens to the articular disc and condylar process
when you open/close your jaw?
First,
the concave inferior surface receives the condylar process of
the mandible and allows the familiar hingelike movement of
depressing and elevating the mandible. Second, the superior
surface of the disc glides anteriorly with the condylar pro-
cess when the mouth is opened wide. This anterior move-
ment braces the condylar process against the dense bone
of the articular tubercle, so that the mandible is not forced
superiorly through the thin roof of the mandibular fossa
when one bites hard foods such as nuts or hard candies.
what is TMJ disorder with reduction
articular disc moves out of place during jaw movements but returns to correct position when jaw moves back
what is TMJ without reduction
articular disc does not return to its correct position after it moved out of alignment
ACL prevents what movement
sliding forward of the tibia, hyper extension
PCL prevents what movement
sliding backward of the tibia
MCL prevents what movement
knee bending toward the midline of the body
LCL prevents what
knee from collapsing outward
What two types of cartilage are likely to be damaged at joints?
hyaline and fibrocartilage
what is dislocation of joint
bones of a joint
are forced out of alignment.
what is subluxation
partial or incomplete dislocation of a joint.
In a subluxation, the bone ends return to their proper posi-
tion on their own.
what is reduction of joint
process of realigning or repositioning a dislocated joint to its normal anatomical position
what is the cause of osteoarthritis
true cause is unknown, but theory is that repeated strain on a joint releases cartilage destroying enzyme
what kind of joint damage in osteoarthritis
cartilage degrades, bone can develop spurs, joint instability
how is rheumatoid arthritis different than OA
it its autoimmune, body mistakenly attacks synovial membrane leading in inflammation in joints
functions of muscle
produce movement, open and close body passageways, maintain posture, stabilize joints, generate heat
3 types of muscle tissue
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
what is epimysium
outer layer of dense, irregular connective tissue surrounding whole skeletal muscle
what is perimysium
layer of fibrous connective tissue that surrounds fascicles
what is a fascicle
group of muscle fibers
what is endomysium
fine sheath of loose connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber
what is an origin
attachment of the muscle on the less moveable bone
what Is an insertion
attachment of muscle on the more moveable bone
insertion and origin, what is pulled to what
insertion pulled towards its origin
what is a tendon
tough fibrous connective tissue that connects muscles to bone
what is a aponeurosis
broad, flat, sheet-like connective tissue structure that acts like a tendon but is wider and flatter.
Know the muscle force vs. muscle length relationship and why it happens in relation to thick/thin
filament overlap.
The optimal resting length for skeletal muscle fibers is the
length that will generate the greatest pulling force when the
muscle is contracted. This optimal length occurs when a fiber
is slightly stretched, so that its thin and thick filaments over-
lap to only a moderate extent (Figure 10.7 1 ). Under these
conditions, the myosin heads can move and pull along the
whole length of the thin filaments.
how do SO cells obtain their ATP
aerobic reactions
SO mitochondria
large number of them
SO capillaries
lots of capillaries
color of SO and why
red, lots of myoglobin
SO are resistant to fatigue as long as..
there is enough oxygen present
power of SO and shape/size
low power, thin and small
FG color and why
pale/white bc of little myoglobin
size of FG, number of myofilamemnts, power
twice size of SO, lots mo0re myofilaments, lots of power
mitochondria and capillaries of FG
few mitochondria, few capillaries
what do FG use as fuel source
glycogen
FO contraction
fast
FO myoglobin content
high
FO mitochondria, capillaries
lots of mitochondria, capillaries
diameter of FO
intermediate
what muscle cell type can be converted during endurance training and how does its physiology change
FO and FG can change between each other , inc capillary network, inc mitochondria density, more glycogen storage
What happens to the muscle cells after lifting heavy objects that causes muscles to become
thicker in size (hypertrophy)?
increases the production
of the contractile proteins actin and myosin, of the myofila-
ments containing these proteins, and of the myofibril organ-
elles these myofilaments form. As the number and size of
the myofibrils increase, the fibers enlarge.
how are satellite cells involved in hypertrophy
are scat-
tered in the muscle tissue outside the muscle fibers. These cells fuse with the fibers, contributing the additional nuclei
needed as the fibers enlarge.so they can increase in diameter and not mitotically
increases myofibrils which increases diameter
order of recruitment for muscle cells
SO, FO, FG
early contraction, fatigue resistance
SO
max loading, fatigue easily, large motor unit
FG
are muscles made of one type of muscle
no, mix of cells in different ratios
with training, which cells cannot change types
slow oxidative
endurance training does what
turns FG into FO
strength training does what
hypertrophy of FG fibers in response to micro tears along muscle cell
tendon attaches what to what
muscle to bone
tendon made of what kind of tissue
dense regular
what is an aponeuroses
wide tendon like sheet that allow muscle to have wide attachment to bone
what is fascia
collagenous CT just below hypodermic, wraps all muscles and envelopes most anatomy
deep fascia includes what
perichondrium, periosteum, endosteum, epimysium, synovial membrane, bursa
what causes a strain
tension forces on a lengthened muscle
what is a grade 1 strain
pain, swelling, typical muscle strength, no loss of function
what is a grade 2 strain
more extensive damage, weakness present, not completely torn
what is grade 3 strain
complete rupture of the muscle/tendon
which grades of strain associated with weak muscle func
grade 2 and 3
intramuscular hematoma
w injury, blood trapped within perimysium or epimysium causing severe pain
inter muscular hematoma
blood can escape epimysium and enter surrounding tissue
weakening during muscular dystrophy occurs in what direction
proximal to distal
what happens during muscular dystrophy
detachment of myofibrils over time, contraction doesn’t do anything
Name the four special functional properties of muscle
tissue.
contractility, excitability, extensibility, elasticity
Distinguish a tendon from an aponeurosis
A tendon is a ropelike cord of fibrous tissue, and an aponeurosis
is a broad, flat sheath
Define motor unit.
consists of one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a skeletal
muscle cell?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions. When the SR releases these ions into the
cytoplasm, they act as triggers for the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction
Define sarcolemma and sarcoplasm.
The sarcolemma is the plasmalemma of a muscle cell, and the sarcoplasm is the
cytoplasm of a muscle cell
Define joint.
sites of contact between two elements of the skeleton, usually
between two bones and occasionally between bone and cartilage
Where does synovial fluid come from?
derived from the synovial membrane of synovial joints. It is primarily a
tissue fluid derived from capillaries in the synovial membrane. It also contains a glycoprotein
(sugar protein) lubricant that is secreted by fibroblasts in the connective tissue of the synovial
membrane
Explain weeping lubrication of the synovial joint surfaces.
When pressure on a synovial joint pushes the adjacent articular cartilages together, it
squeezes synovial fluid from the cartilages onto the cartilage surfaces. This fluid acts as a
slippery lubricant, allowing the cartilages to glide across one another without friction
Name two specific examples of each: hinge joint, plane joint, con-
dylar joint, ball-and-socket joint.
Hinge joint: elbow and ankle (the knee and temporomandibular joints could be called
modified hinge joints); plane joint: intertarsal, intercarpal, superior tibiofibular, and
sacroiliac joints; condylar joint: atlanto-occipital joint, wrist, and metacaropophalangeal; balland-socket joint: shoulder and hip
What are the functions of the menisci of the knee? Of the anterior
and posterior cruciate ligaments?
The knee menisci even out the distribution of compressive load and of synovial fluid in
the joint cavity; they also help guide movements of the condyles and prevent side-to-side rocking
of the femur on the tibia. The cruciate ligaments act to prevent anterior and posterior sliding of
the tibia on the femur, and help to secure the joint.
Why are sprains and injuries to joint cartilages particularly trou-
blesome?
These injuries cause problems because they heal poorly. Sprains—tearing of joint
ligaments—heal slowly because all ligaments are poorly vascularized. Torn cartilages heal
poorly (in adults) because cartilage cells have no ability to divide. (
Name the most common direction in which each of the following
joints tends to dislocate: (a) shoulder, (b) elbow.
The humerus dislocates anteroinferiorly; (p. 226) (b) the ulna dislocates posteriorly;
(p. 227) (c) the femur dislocates posteriorly. (
List the functions of the following parts of a synovial joint:
(a) fibrous layer of the capsule, (b) synovial fluid, (c) articular disc.
The fibrous layer contains the joint contents and resists tension so the bones of the
joint are not pulled apart. (b) Synovial fluid is a lubricant that prevents articular elements from
rubbing together and destroying the joint through friction. (c) Articular discs
improve the fit between the two bone elements in joints, evenly distributing the load and minimizing wear. They also may allow two different movements at the same joint.
Name and diagram the four normal vertebral curvatures. Which
are primary and which are secondary?
The normal vertebral curvatures are cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral. The thoracic
and sacral curvatures are primary. The cervical and lumbar are secondary.
(a) What is the function of intervertebral discs? (b) Distinguish the
anulus fibrosus from the nucleus pulposus of a disc. (c) Which part
herniates in the condition called prolapsed disc?
The discs act as shock absorbers, bind successive vertebrae together, and allow the
spine to flex and extend. They also resist tension forces placed on the vertebral column. (b) The
anulus fibrosus is a series of about 12 concentric rings, which contain fibrocartilage and surround
the nucleus pulposus. The nucleus pulposus is a sphere of gelatinous substance in the center of
each intervertebral disc. (c) The nucleus pulposus herniates in a prolapsed disc.
Briefly describe the anatomical characteristics and impairment of
function seen in cleft palate.
Cleft palate: a persistent opening in the medial part of the hard palate that interferes with
sucking and can lead to aspiration of food into the lungs. A cleft palate is a common birth defect.
Identify what types of movement are allowed by the lumbar region
of the vertebral column, and compare these with the movements
allowed by the thoracic region.
Movements allowed by the lumbar region: flexion and extension of the spine, but not
rotation. Movements allowed by the thoracic region: rotation and some lateral flexion, but not
flexion or extension.
