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anatomy > exam 4 > Flashcards

exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

effectors of somatic ns

A

skeletal muscle

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2
Q

effectors of autonomic ns

A

smooth muscle
cardiac muscle
glands

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3
Q

number of neurons between cns and effector of somatic ns

A

1

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4
Q

number of neurons between cns and effecotr of autonomic ns

A

2

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5
Q

neurotransmitter used in somatic ns

A

AcH

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6
Q

neurotransmitter used in autonomic ns

A

AcH or norepinephrine

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7
Q

effect of neurotransmitter binding its receptor in somatic ns

A

excitatory

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8
Q

effect of neurotranmitter binding its receptor in autonomic ns

A

excitatory or inhibitatory

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9
Q

two neuron pathway of ans

A

pre and post ganglionic neuron

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10
Q

preganglionic neuron

A

cell body in brain or spinal cord

axon extends to autonomic ganglion in pns

releases AcH to excite neuron

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11
Q

postganglionic neuron

A

cell body is in ganglion

axon extends to smooth musclr, cardiac muscle or gland

releases AcH or NE to excite or inhibit

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12
Q

hypothalamus controls

A

both divisions of ans

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13
Q

brainstem regulates

A

visceral recflexes

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14
Q

spinal cord regulates

A

ans reflexes

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15
Q

parasympathetic

A

rest and digest

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16
Q

sympathetic

A

fight or flight

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17
Q

parasympathetic maintains

A

homeostasis at rest

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18
Q

craniosacral division

A

preganglionic cel bodies in brainstem and S2 - S4

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19
Q

size of axons in parasympathetic

A

preganglionic are long

postganglionic are short

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20
Q

location of ganglia in parasympathetic

A

terminal

close or inside wall of effector organs

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21
Q

cranial nerves in parasympathetic

A

3
7
9
10 (vagus- most impulses)

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22
Q

sympathetic prepares for

A

exercise and emergency

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23
Q

thoracolumbar division

A

sympathetic

preganglionic cell bodies in lateral gray horns T1 - L2

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24
Q

size of axons in sympathetic

A

preganglionic axons are short

postganglionic axons are long

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25
Q

ganglia location in sympathetic

A

lateral to spinal cord

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26
Q

preganglionic neurons in sympathetic trunk

A

synapse with ganglia in immediate area

ascend or descen to synapse

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27
Q

systemic effects of sympathetic

A

many branches simultaneously synapse with multiple

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28
Q

adrenal medulla pathway

A

preganglionic sympathetic axons extend through sympathetic trunk without synapsing

preganglionic cells stimulate adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and NE into blood

prolong fight or flight

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29
Q

cells that release AcH are

A

chokinergic neurond

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30
Q

cholinergic neurons

A

all ans preganglionic neurons

all parasympathetic postganglionic neurons

sympathetic postganglionic neurons innervating sweat glands and blood vessels in skeletal muscle

have cholinergic receptors

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31
Q

cells that release norepinephrine are

A

adrenergic neurons

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32
Q

adrenergic neurons

A

most sympathetic postganglionic neurons are adrenergic

target cells have adrenergic neurons

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33
Q

types of cholinergic receptors

A

nicotinic

muscarinic

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34
Q

nicotinic receptors

A

sensitice to nicotine

found on all postganglionic neurons and adrenal medulla cells

when AcH binds it opens Na channels

cell depolarizes

EPSP

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35
Q

muscarinic receptors

A

senstive to muscarine

found in all target organs of parasympathetic division and few sympathetic

sweat glands
blood vessels in skeletal muscle

excite or inhibit

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36
Q

where does epinephrine and NE bind to

A

adrenergic receptors

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37
Q

adrenergic receptor types

A

alpha
beta

excite and inhibit

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38
Q

autonomic tone

A

innervated by both divisions of ans

continously release neurotransmitter

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39
Q

dual innervation

A

organ recieves input from both parasympathetic and sympathetic

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40
Q

antagonistic effects

A

two divisions oppose each other

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41
Q

heart rate in ans

A

ps: slows
symp: increases

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42
Q

gi tract in ans

A

ps: increases motility
symp: decreases motility

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43
Q

pupil in ans

A

ps: constricts
symp: dilates

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44
Q

urine formation in ans

A

ps: increases urine formation
sympa: decreases urin formation

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45
Q

bronchials in ans

A

ps: contriction
sympa: dilation

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46
Q

cooperative effects

A

parasympathetic and sympathetic stimulation have different effectd that are apart of overall response

ps: male erection
symp: ejaculation

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47
Q

structures without dual innervation (sympathetic only)

A

smooth muslce in walls of blood vessels

sweat glands in trunk

arrector pili msucles in skin

adrenal medulla neurosecretoru cells

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48
Q

sensory receptors

A

respond to stimuli

action potential

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49
Q

transducers

A

convert stimulus energy into electrical energy

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50
Q

sensation

A

stimulus we are consciously aware of

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51
Q

modality

A

type of stimulus based on labeled

optic nerve signals as visual

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52
Q

tonic receptors

A

show limited adaptation

respond continuously

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53
Q

phasic receptors

A

adapt rapidly

only respond to new stimuli

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54
Q

somatic sensory receptors

A

tactile receptors of skin and mucous membranes

proprioceptors of joints, muscles, and tendons

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55
Q

visceral sensory receptors

A

internal organs

monitor stretch, chemicals, temp, pain

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56
Q

chemoreceptors

A

detect chemicals dissolved in fluid

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57
Q

thermoreceptors

A

detect changes in temp

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58
Q

photoreceptors

A

detect changes in light intensity, color, movement

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59
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

detect distortion of cell membrane

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60
Q

nociceptors

A

detect painful stimuli

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61
Q

tactile receptors

A

abundant mechanoreceptors of skin and mucous membrane

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62
Q

referred pain

A

inaccurate localization

signals from viscera percieved from skin or muscle

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63
Q

olfaction

A

detection of ordors

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64
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

sensory receptor organ

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65
Q

process of olfaction

A

olfactory receptor cells detect odors’

supporting cells sustain receptors

basal cells replace olfactory receptor cells

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66
Q

rate of replacement olfactory cells

A

every 40 to 60 days

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67
Q

general pathway of neurons in olfaction

A

contain cilia with chemoreceptors for specific ordorant

axons form olfactory nerves that end in olfactory bulbs, synapse

project into temporal lobe, hypothalamus, amygdala, etc

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68
Q

5 basic tastes

A 
sweet
salt
sour
bitter
umami
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69
Q

nerve that carries majority of tast info

A

cn 7 facial

cn 9 glossopharyngeal

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70
Q

cornea

A

convex transparent structure at front of eye

no blood vessels

refracts light

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71
Q

iris

A

gives eye color

smooth muscle, melanocytes, vessels, neural structures

controls pupil diameter

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72
Q

optic disc

A

no photoreceptors- blindspot

ganglion axons exit toward brain

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73
Q

rods

A

more numerous

highly sensitive

activated by dim light

converge on bipolar cells

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74
Q

cones

A

concentrated at fovea centralis

attracted by high intensity loght-color vision

one to one relationship with bipolar cells-sharp image in bright light

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75
Q

tears

A

excess fluid that is washed over eye while blinking

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76
Q

ciliary muscles

A

bands of smooth muscle connected to lens

muscle contraction alters lens shape

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77
Q

fovea centralis

A

depression in retina

center of field of vision

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78
Q

chamber contains aqueous humour

A

anterior cavity

in front of lens

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79
Q

chamber contains vitreous humor

A

posterior cavity

behind lens

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80
Q

tympanic membrane

A

eardrum

delicate funnel shaped epithelial sheet

between external and middle ear

vibrates when sound waves hit

transmits sound wave energy into middle ear

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81
Q

auditory tube

A

passage extending from middle ear to nasopharynx

usually closed

equalizes pressure on sides of tympanic membrane

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82
Q

auditory ossicles

A

three tiny bones of middle ear

amplify sound waves and transmit sound into oval window

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83
Q

malleus

A

attached to medial surface of tympanic membrane

hammer

84
Q

incus

A

middle ossicle resembling anvil

85
Q

stapes

A

has disclike footstep fitting into oval window

stirrup

86
Q

organ of hearing

A

cochlea

87
Q

organ of equilibrium

A

vestibule

88
Q

perilymph

A

interstitial fluid

bony labyrinth

89
Q

endolymph

A

membranous labyrinth

90
Q

where do axons of eqilibrium terminate

A

medulla or cerebellum

91
Q

cranial nerves of equilibrium

A

cn 8 vestibulocochlear

92
Q

enodocrine system

A

composed of ductless glands that synthesize and secrete hormones

93
Q

target cells

A

specifice receptors for that hormone

94
Q

endocrime transmits hormones via

A

blood

95
Q

endocrine hormones have

A

longer reaction times

longer lasting effects

96
Q

general funktions of endocrine system

A

regualte development, growth, metabolism

maintaining homeostasis of blood composition and volume

control digestive process

control reproductive activities

97
Q

hormonal stimulation

A

another hormone binds to receptors and stimulates release

98
Q

humoral stimulation

A

certain change in levels of nutrient or ion in blood

99
Q

nervous stimulation

A

neuron stimulates release of hormone

100
Q

steroids

A

lipid soluble

101
Q

biogenic amnines

A

modified amino acids

water soluble

102
Q

proteins

A

water soluble chain of amino acids

103
Q

lipid soluble hormones use what in the blood

A

carries proteins

104
Q

water soluble hormones in blood

A

freely

105
Q

hormones blood concentration depends on

A

how fast its synthesized and eliminated

106
Q

hormone elimination

A

enzymatic degradation in liver

removal from blood via kidney excretion

target cell uptakes

107
Q

half life

A

time neccessary to reduce hormones concentration to half its orginal life

108
Q

hormones with short half lives

A

water soluble

109
Q

hormones with long half lives

A

steroids

110
Q

lipid soluble hormones

A

diffuse across target cell membrane

receptors in cytosol or nucleus

protein synthesis

111
Q

water soluble hormones

A

membrane receptors

signal transduction pathway

112
Q

signal transduction pathway

A

hormone is first messenger

binding activates g protein

g protein activation causes activation of membrane enzyme

activation enzyme catalyzes formation of second messenger- a chemical

113
Q

action of water soluble hormones

A

enzymes can be activated or inhibited

growth can be stimulated

cellular secretions released

membrane permeability changed

muscles contracted or relaxed

114
Q

cells response to a hormone varies with

A

number of receptors

simultaneous response to other hormones

115
Q

up regulation

A

increase number of receptors

increase sensitivity

116
Q

down regulation

A

decrease number of receptors

decrease sensitivity

117
Q

pituitary gland

A

pea sized

connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum

118
Q

posterior pituitary

A

neural part

stores hormones from hypothalamus

119
Q

anterior pituitary

A

glandular

portal system

capillaries

120
Q

portal system

A

large vessels that connect two capillary networks

121
Q

hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

A

primary plexus- hypothalamus
secondary plexus- anterior pituitary
hypophyseal portal veins- drains primary to secondary

122
Q

hormones stored in posterior pituitary

A

oxytocin

ADH

123
Q

oxytocin

A

uterine contraction
milk ejection
emotional bonding

124
Q

ADH

A

urine production
thrist
constrict blood vessel

125
Q

releasing hormones

A

increase secretion of anterior pituitary

126
Q

inhibiting hormones

A

decrease secretion of anterior pituitary

127
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone TSH

A

release triggered from TRH

causes release thyroid hormone

128
Q

prolactin

A

release triggered by PRH

causes milk production

129
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH

A

cause relase of corticosteroids by adrenal cortex

130
Q

gonadotropins

A

FSH
LH
female-regulate ovarian development and secretion of estrogen
male- sperm development and secretion of testosterone

131
Q

growth hormone

A

causes liver to secrete insulin like growth factors

132
Q

growth hormone funktions

A

stimulation of linear growth at epiphyseal

hypertrophy of muscle

release of nutrients from storage into blood

133
Q

GH and IGFs release nutrients from

A

adipose cells

134
Q

feedback loop of GHRH, GH release

A

negative feedbacl

135
Q

thyroid gland

A

microscopic follicles

highly vascularized

136
Q

follicular cells

A

produce and relase thyroid hormone

137
Q

colloid

A

viscouse, protein rich fluid

138
Q

parafollicular cells

A

hormone that decreases blood calcium levels

139
Q

hypothalamic pituitary thyroid axis

A

cold temp
pregnancy
high altitude
hypoglycemia

TRH causes anterior pituitary to release TSH

140
Q

TH increases

A

metabolic rate and protein synthesis

generates heat

stimulates increased amino acid and glucose uptake

141
Q

atp production with TH

A

heptatocytes stimulate increase blood glucose

adipose cells stimulate increase blood glycerol and fatty acids

TH increase respiration rate
heart rate

142
Q

negative feedback regulation of TH release

A

increase in TH cause decrease in release

TH inhibits release of TRH from hypothalamus

TH inhibits release of TSH from anterior pituitary

TH causes release GH inhibiting hormone

143
Q

adrenal medulla

A

inner core
blood vessles
release epinephrine and norepinephrine

144
Q

adrenal cortex

A

synthesize 25 corticosteroids

yellow due to lipids

145
Q

mineralcorticoids

A

regulate electrolyte

aldosterone

146
Q

glucocorticoids

A

regulate blood sugar

cortisol

147
Q

gonadocorticoids

A

sex hormones

androgens

148
Q

cortisol

A

increase nutrient levels in blood
resist stress and repair injured tissue
break down proteins into amino acids
negative feedback

149
Q

corticosterone used for

A

inflammation
suppress immune system

high risks of cancer, infections, retention of sodium and water, inhibits connective tissue repair

150
Q

alpha cells

A

secrete glucagon

151
Q

beta cells

A

secrete insulin

152
Q

insulin does what to glucose

A

lowers

high glucose after eating = more insulin released

153
Q

how insulin lowers blood glucose

A

hepatocytes remove glucose from blood stores as glycogen

adipose cells decrease fatty acids in blood, store fat

body cells increase nutrient uptake in repsone to insulin

154
Q

glucagon and blood glucose

A

raises
heptatocyes relase glucose
adipose cells release fatty acids and glycerol

155
Q

pineal gland

A

secretes melatonin
causes drowisness
regulates day night cycles an mood

156
Q

blood

A

continously regenerated connective tissue

move gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones

157
Q

formed elements of blood

A

erythrocytes
leukocytes
platelets

158
Q

erythrocytes

A 
transport respiratory gases in blood 
RBC
flexible
lack nucleus and cellular organelles
packed with hemoglobin
biconcave discs
transport O2 and Co2
159
Q

leukocytes

A

defend against pathogen
WBC
contain nucleus and organelees
tissues

160
Q

platelets

A

help form clots
no nucleus
break off megakaryocytes in red marrow

161
Q

plasma

A

fluid portion

contain plasma proteins and dissolved solutes

162
Q

transportation with blood

A

formed elements, dissolved molecules and ions

163
Q

protection with blood

A

leukocytes, plasma proteins, protect against pathogens

164
Q

blood regulation of body conditions

A

body temp

body pH

165
Q

fluid balance of blood

A

exchangw between blood and interstitial fluid

maintain osmotic balace

166
Q

hematocrit

A

percentage of volume of all formed elements

percentage of RBC

167
Q

components of plasma

A

water
plasma proteins
dissolved molecules and ions

168
Q

plasma proteins exerts

A

colloid osmotic pressure
prevents loss of fluid from blood
maintain blood volume and blood pressure

169
Q

albumins

A

most abundant

regulate fluid movement

170
Q

globulins

A

part of bodys defenses

171
Q

fibrinogen

A

blood clot formation

172
Q

regulatory proteins

A

includes enzymes and hormones

173
Q

hemopoiesis

A

production of formed elements

occurs in red bone marrow

174
Q

hemocytoblasts

A

stem cells

175
Q

pluripotents

A

can differentiate into many type of cells

myeloid and lymphoid line

176
Q

erythropoiesis

A

red blood cell production
proces requires iron, B vitamens, amino acids
becomes reticulocytes-lack organelles except ribosomes that make hemoglobin

177
Q

hemoglobin

A

reg pigmented protein
transports O2 and CO2
4 globins (CO2) and 4 heme (O2)

178
Q

erythropoietin

A 
produced in kidneys
stimulated by hypoxia (low blood oxygen)
red marrow is target tissue
make more erythrocytes
low altitude
testosterone EPO production
179
Q

erythrocyte destruction

A

lack orgnanelles, cannot synthesize proteins
phagocytize in spleen or liver

globins and proteins broken int o amino acids

180
Q

heme group

A

converted into bilirubin
transported by albumin to liver
becomes bile-expelled as feces or urine

181
Q

blood types

A

blood group depends on surface antigens projecting fro RBC membrane

182
Q

type A blood

A

have antigen A

anti-B antibodies

183
Q

type B blood

A

have antigen B

anti-A antibodies

184
Q

type AB blood

A

have antigen A and B

no antibodies

185
Q

type O blood

A

neither A or B antigen

both antibodies

186
Q

incorrect blood given

A

clumping

hemolysis

187
Q

chemotaxis

A

attraction of leukocytes to chemicals released at an infection site

188
Q

neutrophils

A

most numerous
first to arrive at infection
phagocytize infectious pathogens
pus

189
Q

eosinophils

A

phagocytize antigen antibody complexes or allergies
cause inflammation caused by allergic reactions

active in case of parasitic worms

190
Q

basophils

A

histamine-stimulates inflammatory response

heparin- inhibits blood clotting

191
Q

lymphocytes

A

T
B
natural killer cells

192
Q

t lymphocytes

A

manage immunes response

193
Q

B lymphocyte

A

become plasma cells and produce antibodies

194
Q

natural killer cells

A

attack abnormal and infection tissue cells

195
Q

monocytes

A

transform into large phagocytic cells, macrophages

phagocytize bacteria, viruses, debris

196
Q

hemostasis

A

stoppage of bleeding

3 phases

197
Q

vascular spasm

A

blood vessel constriction
limits blood leakage
immediate but temporary

198
Q

platelet plug formation

A

collagen fibers in vessel wall exposed

platelets stick to collagen

platelets develpo long processes allowing for better adhesion

platelets aggregate and close off injury

199
Q

coagulation

A

blood clotting

network of fibrin forms a mesh- traps everything

requires calcium, clotting facotrs, platelets, vitamen K

200
Q

intrinsic pathway

A

initiated by platelets upon damage to inside of vessel wall

201
Q

extrinisic pathway

A

initiaited by damage to outside of vessel

202
Q

common pathway

A

form prothrombin activator

prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin

thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen to siluble fibrin

presence of calcium causes formation of insoluble fibrin strands into meshwork

203
Q

elimination of clot

A

clot retraction and fibrinolysis

204
Q

clot retraction

A

actinomyosin contracts and squeezes serum out of developing clot making it smaller

205
Q

fibrinolysis

A

degradation of fibrin strands by plasmin

anatomy (7 decks)

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