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Human Physiology > Exam 3 Vocab > Flashcards

Exam 3 Vocab Flashcards

1
Q

Food

A

Basic source of organic molecules to make ATP, build tissues and serve as cofactors and coenzymes

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2
Q

Digestion

A

Breaks polymers into monomers via hydrolysis reaction. Chemical and physical breakdown of food

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3
Q

Absorption

A

Takes monomers into bloodstream to be used by cells. Passing broken down food into blood or lymph

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4
Q

Motility

A

Movement of food through the tract

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5
Q

Ingestion

A

Taking food into the mouth

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6
Q

Mastication

A

Chewing food into smaller pieces and mixing with saliva for deglutination.

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7
Q

Deglutination

A

Swallowing. Coordinated contraction of 25 pairs of muscles

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8
Q

Peristalsis

A

Wave-like, one-way movement through tract. Weak and slow movement for better absorption

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9
Q

Segmentation

A

Churning and mixing in different segments while moving forward. Stronger than peristalsis

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10
Q

Exocrine Secretion (Digestion)

A

Digestive enzymes, Hal, mucus, water, HCO3-

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11
Q

Endocrine Secretion (Digestion)

A

Hormones to regulate digestion

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12
Q

Storage and Elimination

A

Temporary storage and subsequent elimination of undigested food

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13
Q

Simple Columnar Epithelium (intestine)

A

Tight junctions that prevent pathogens from entering the body. Physical barrier

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14
Q

Immune cells

A

Found in connective tissue of digestive tract to promote immune response

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15
Q

Gastrointestinal Tract (GI tract)

A

Alimentary canal: 30 feet long, from mouth to anus.

Oral cavity –> pharynx –> esophagus –> stomach –> small intestines –> large intestines –> anus

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16
Q

Accessory Organs

A

Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

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17
Q

Mucosa

A

Inner secretory and absorptive layer, may be folded to increase surface area (and have villi and microvilli usually)

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18
Q

Submucosa

A

Vascular layer of connective tissue –> picks up nutrients, also has some glands and nerve plexuses

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19
Q

Muscularis

A

Lots of smooth muscles but run in different directions; responsible for peristalsis and segmentation; myenteric plexus for control by the ANS

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20
Q

Serosa

A

Outer binding and protective layer

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21
Q

Parasympathetic (Extrinsic Regulation)

A

Stimulates motility and secretion (rest and digest)

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22
Q

Sympathetic (Extrinsic Regulation)

A

Inhibits peristalsis and secretion; stimulates sphincter contraction (fight or flight, inhibiting rest or digest)

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23
Q

Hormones (Extrinsic Regulation)

A

From brain and other digestive organs

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24
Q

Intrinsic Sensory Neurons (Intrinsic Regulation)

A

In gut wall, not part of ANS; part of enteric nervous system

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25
Q

Paracrine Signals (Intrinsic Regulation)

A

In stomach, histamine and serotonin, released by ECL cells

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26
Q

Saliva

A

Contains mucus = antimicrobial and salivary amylase which begins digestion of starch

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27
Q

Oral (Deglutition)

A

Voluntary: mouth and tongue muscles

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28
Q

Pharyngeal (Deglutition)

A

Involuntary –> uvula (nasopharynx) and epiglottis covers up the passage into the trachea (vocal cords)

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29
Q

Esophageal (Deglutition)

A

Involuntary; controlled by swallowing center of the brain stem

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30
Q

Bolus

A

Chewed food. moves down the esophagus to stomach via peristalsis

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31
Q

Lower Esophageal (gastroesophogeal) Sphincter

A

Opens to allow food to pass into stomach; stays closed to prevent regurgitation

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32
Q

Stomach Functions

A

Stores food, churns food to mix with gastric secretions, begins protein digestion (pepsin), kills bacteria in the food (Hal), moves food into small intestine as chyme.

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33
Q

Stomach Structure

A

Food enters from esophagus into cardiac region, upper region (fondus), lower region (body), distal region (pyloric region ends at pyloric sphincter). Lining has folds called rugae

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34
Q

Gastric Pits

A

Openings in rug that lead to gastric glands

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35
Q

Mucous Neck Cells

A

Secrete mucus to protect stomach lining from acid

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36
Q

Parietal Cells

A

Secrete Hal and intrinsic factor (B12 absorption too)

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37
Q

Chief (zymogenic) Cells

A

Secrete pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin)

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38
Q

Enterochromaffin-like Cells (ECL)

A

Secrete histamine and serotonin (Paracrine signals)

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39
Q

G Cells

A

Secrete gastrin (hormone)

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40
Q

D Cells

A

Secrete somatostatin (hormone)

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41
Q

Ghrelin

A

Signals brain to regulate hunger

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42
Q

Apical Membrane (Intestines)

A

Faces the lumen of the intestines. Pumps H out and Cl follows passively

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43
Q

Basal Membrane (intestines)

A

Faces capillaries. Brings Cl in, and exports HCO3 (carbonic anhydrase)

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44
Q

HCl

A

Makes the intestines more acidic, denaturing proteins for easier digestion and converting pepsinogen into pepsin

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45
Q

Pepsin

A

Catalyzes hydrolysis of peptide bonds in ingested proteins

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46
Q

Stomach Defense

A

Adherent layer of mucus with alkaline bicarbonate, tight junctions, and rapid epithelial mitosis that replaces itself every three days

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47
Q

Peptic Ulcers

A

Erosions of the mucosa of the stomach or duodenum due to HCl

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48
Q

Helicobacter Pylori

A

Bacterium that reduces mucosal barriers to acid

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49
Q

Small Intestine Structure

A

Food travels from the duodenum to the jejunum, and finally the ileum. Folds allow for better absorption, want the most surface area possible

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50
Q

Small Intestine Function

A

Complete digestion of carbs, proteins and fats.

Absorption of nutrients: rapid due to villi and microvilli

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51
Q

Duodenum and Jejunum

A

Absorbs sugars, lipids, amino acids, calcium, and iron

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52
Q

Ileum

A

Absorbs biles salts, vitamin B12, water, and electrolytes

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53
Q

Vlli

A

Composed of columnar epithelium and goblet cells (which secrete mucus). It has capillaries that absorb monosaccharides and amino acids, and lacteals (lymphatic things…) that absorb fats.
Fats are absorbed in the lacteals (central lymphatic thing…)
Need to replace all this stuff frequently

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54
Q

Intestinal Crypts

A

Crypts of lieberkuhn. Contains panted cells and mitotic stem cells (replenish intestinal cells every 4-5 days)

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55
Q

Microvilli

A

Brush border, folding of apical surface of each epithelial cell (higher surface area, better absorption)

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56
Q

Intestinal Enzymes

A

Brush border enzymes: hydrolyze disaccharides, polypeptides, and other substrates to simple nutrient molecules (literally on the microvilli)

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57
Q

Disaccharidase

A

Category of enzymes including sucrase, maltase, and lactase. Helps break sugars down to glucose (and sometimes fructose and galactose)

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58
Q

Peptidase

A

Category of enzymes that includes amino peptidase (produces free amino acids, dipeptides and tripeptides) and enterokinase (activates trypsin)

59
Q

Phosphatase

A

Ca/Mg-ATPase (needed for absorption of dietary calcium) and alkaline phosphatase (removes phosphate groups from organic molecules). Both may be regulated by vitamin D

60
Q

Interstitial Cells of Cajal

A

Endogenous pacemaker, causes very slow automatic smooth muscle contractions

61
Q

Large Intestine Structure

A

Through the ileocecal valve (controls what goes in) –> cecum –> ascending colon –> transverse colon –> descending colon –> sigmoid colon –> rectum –> anal canal –> anus

62
Q

Large Intestine Function

A

Absorbs water, electrolytes, vitamin K, and some B vitamins. Produces some vitamin K and B, via microbes, and stores feces.

63
Q

Microflora

A

Resident microbes in large intestine. Mostly anaerobic. They produce vitamin K and some B vitamins, make fatty acids to aid in electrolyte absorption, and outcompete harm bacteria

64
Q

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

A

Can be the result of the disruption of microflora

65
Q

Liver Structure

A

Largest abdominal organ, made up of hepatic plates which are formed by the quickly regenerating hepatocytes. Hepatic plates are separated by capillaries called sinusoids which are very permeable to blood proteins, fat, and cholesterol

66
Q

Liver Function

A

Secretes bile (salts and pigment), detoxification of blood, carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, protein synthesis

67
Q

Hepatic Portal System

A

Liver’s job is to take substances from the blood, that’s what hepatic clearance is

68
Q

Hepatic Clearance

A

Ability of the liver to remove substances from blood. A minimum of 25% of cardiac output is needed to maintain this

69
Q

Hepatic Artery

A

Supplies the liver with 20-25% of blood flow

70
Q

Hepatic Portal Vein

A

Supplies the liver with 75-80% of its blood flow from intestines, gallbladder, pancreas, momentum, and spleen

71
Q

Hepatic Vein

A

Vein through which the blood leaves the liver to join regular venous circulation

72
Q

Enterohepatic Circulation

A

Substances that are cleared by the liver, go into the small intestine and then are reabsorbed and returned to the liver.

73
Q

Detoxification of blood

A

Removal of hormones, drugs, and other substances through excretion into bile, phagocytized by Kupffer cells, and being chemically altered by hepatocytes

74
Q

Liver and glucose

A

Basically: glycogenesis, lipogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and ketogenesis.

Helps balance glucose by removing it and storing it as glycogen (glycogenesis) or triglycerides (lipogenesis). Also breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis) and releasing glucose into the blood. Also can make glucose from amino acids (gloconeogenesis) and convert fatty acids into ketones (ketogenesis)

75
Q

Gallbladder

A

Stores and concentrates bile from the liver

76
Q

Sphincter of Oddi

A

Controls the release of bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum

77
Q

Pancreas

A

Endocrine functions: makes insulin and glucagon through the Islets of Langerhans cells
Exocrine functions: Acinar cells make pancreatic juice

78
Q

Pancreatic Juice

A

Made up of bicarbonate and 20 digestive enzymes that break down all four main macro molecules

79
Q

Pancreatic Enzymes

A

Most are zymogens secreted into the lumen of the small intestine.
Trypsinogen (zymogen form of trypsin) is cleaved into the active form by enterokinase. Trypsin then activates other enzymes

80
Q

Vagus Nerve

A

Regulates digestive system. Also part of a conditioned reflex

81
Q

Gastrin

A

Secreted by the stomach. Stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCl, chief cells to secrete pepsinogen

82
Q

Secretin

A

Secreted by the small intestine. Stimulates water and bicarbonate secretion in pancreatic juice

83
Q

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A

Secreted by the small intestine. Stimulates contraction of the gallbladder, secretion of pancreatic juice enzymes, inhibit gastric motility and secretion

84
Q

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)

A

Secreted by the small intestine. Inhibits gastric motility and secretion. Stimulates secretion of insulin

85
Q

Intrinsic GI Regulation

A

Pacesetter cells

86
Q

Extrinsic GI Regulation

A

HCl and pepsinogen secretion occurs when proteins enter stomach. Initiated and regulated by G cells (gastrin), D cells (somatostatin) and ECL cells (histamine)

87
Q

Three Phases of Extrinsic Regulation

A

Cephalic phase, gastric phase, intestinal phase

88
Q

Cephalic Phase of Extrinsic Regulation

A 
Control by brain via vagus nerves. First 30 minutes of a meal
Stimulates ECL (major response) --> chief cells --> parietal cells
89
Q

Gastric Phase of Extrinsic Regulation

A

Gastric secretion stimulated by stomach distension and chemical nature of chyme
Positive feedback: more proteins broken down, more secretions
Glucose and fats have no effect on this, they are not digested in the stomach
Negative feedback: decrease in pH (more HCl) –> somatostatin released –> inhibits gastrin secretion

90
Q

Intestinal Phase of Extrinsic Regulation

A

Inhibition of gastric activity when chyme enters small intestine (SI). Slows chymes movement into duodenum to give enough time for digestion and absorption.
Duodenum Stretches –> neural reflex that inhibits gastric stimulation via vagus nerve
Presence of fats stimulates the duodenum to make enterogastrone –> inhibits gastric function

91
Q

Digestion of Carbohydrates

A

They are digested in the mouth and small intestine but not the stomach, it is too acidic. They are absorbed through secondary active transport with Na, and facilitated diffusion through GLUT carriers

92
Q

Bile

A

Secreted by the liver, functions in the duodenum where it emulsifies fat, breaking it down to fatty acids and glycerol.

93
Q

Absorption of Fats

A

In SI, breaks fats into bile micelles then transported into villi epithelium. Once in the cell they are regenerated into triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids and combined with proteins to form chylomicrons

94
Q

Digestion of Proteins

A

Begins in stomach (pepsin and HCl), finishes in duodenum and jejunum of the SI (trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase and the brush border enzyme amino peptidase)

95
Q

Very-Low-Density-Lipoproteins (VLDL’s)

A

Apolipoproteins combined with cholesterol and triglycerides to deliver triglycerides to different organs

96
Q

Low-Density-Lipoproteins (LDL’s)

A

Apolipoproteins combined with just cholesterol for transport to organs via blood vessels

97
Q

High-Density-Lipoproteins (HDL’s)

A

Transport excess cholesterol to the liver (cleans up, pretty much, reducing cholesterol in blood)

98
Q

Positive energy balance

A

Excess calorie intake (regardless of source) = storage of fat

99
Q

Negative energy balance

A

Weight lost when fewer calories consumed than needed

100
Q

Essential Amino Acids

A

lysine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, threonine, valine, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, histidine

101
Q

Essential Fatty Acids

A

Linoleic acid (comes from corn, saturated, omega-6) and alpha-linolenic acid (omega-3)

102
Q

Turnover rate

A

Rate at which a particular molecule is broken down and remade (Proteins: 150g/day and fat: 100g/day)

103
Q

Essential nutrients

A

Can’t be made by body, must be obtained from diet

104
Q

Vitamins

A

Small organic molecules that serve as coenzymes or perform a specific function
Must be obtained in the diet because body can’t make them or does so only in small amounts (D, K, B)

105
Q

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

A

A, D, E, K –> can be stored in body, so they can be dangerous/poisonous

106
Q

Water-Soluble Vitamins

A

B’s and C’s –> can’t be stored in body, pee out

107
Q

Minerals

A

Inorganic molecules used as cofactors and in a wide range of processes

108
Q

Macronutrients

A

Na, K, Mg, P, Ca, Cl, needed in large amounts (mg’s)

109
Q

Other Minerals (trace)

A

Fe, Zn, Mn, F, Cu, Mo, Cr, Se, I, needed in trace amounts. (micrograms)

110
Q

Free radicals

A

molecules with unpaired electrons. Serve a role in immune response in phagocytes, vasodilation & scar formation

111
Q

Reactive oxygen species

A

Produced in ETC; superoxide radical (O2•), hydroxyl radical (HO•)

112
Q

Reactive nitrogen species

A

nitric oxide radical (NO•)

113
Q

Oxidative stress

A

Too many free radicals leading to cellular damage. Promotes apoptosis, aging-associated degeneration, cancer malignancy, inflammatory diseases, cardiovascular & neurological diseases

114
Q

Circulating energy substrates

A

Fatty acids, glucose, and amino acids in bloodstream

115
Q

Adipostat

A

Mechanisms that defend a set amount of adipose tissue = negative feedback loop

116
Q

White fat

A

Stores energy as triglycerides

117
Q

Adipocytes

A

Secrete hormones that regulate hunger and metabolism.

118
Q

Adipokines

A

Regulatory molecules secreted by adipocytes that affect hunger, metabolism & insulin sensitivity

119
Q

Adiponectin

A

Stimulates muscle cells to use glc and fatty acids

120
Q

Leptin

A

Secreted in proportion to the amount of stored fat

i. Immune response: starving = reduced immune activity; TH cells have leptin receptors
ii. Regulates hunger via feedback to hypothalamus
iii. Regulates reproductive processes via hypothalamus. Low body fat = will not ovulate or menstruate.

121
Q

Obesity

A

Risk factor for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, gallbladder disease, and some cancers

122
Q

Childhood obesity

A

increasing # & size of adipocytes

123
Q

Adulthood obesity

A

increase in size alone

124
Q

BMI (weight in kg/height in m2)

A

19-25 = healthy
26-29 = overweight
over 30 = obese

125
Q

Hyperphagia

A

Overeating, caused by ventromedial hypothalamus lesions

126
Q

Hypophagia

A

Underrating, caused by lateral hypothalamus lesions

127
Q

Endorphins and Seratonin

A

Play a role in suppressing eating

128
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Plays a role in stimulating eating (Rest or digest)

129
Q

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

A

Decreases hunger

130
Q

Neuropeptide Y and Agouti-related protein (AgRP)

A

Increase hunger. Neuropeptide Y does this directly, AgRP inhibits MSH.

131
Q

Arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus

A

Produces hormones involved in hunger

132
Q

Ghrelin

A

Secreted by an empty stomach. Stimulates release of Neuropeptide Y and AgRP. As stomach fills, ghrelin reduces

133
Q

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A

Levels rise right after a meal, promoting satiety suppressing hunger

134
Q

Polypeptide YY (PYY)

A

Reduces appetite, stimulates MSH

135
Q

Leptin cont.

A

Reduces hunger by inhibiting neuropeptide Y and Agouti-related protein and by stimulating MSH

136
Q

Insulin

A

Reduces hunger indirectly by increasing fat storage which increases leptin production. Main hormone regulating blood glucose levels, working to remove excess by inserting GLUT4 carrier proteins in membrane of target cells (muscle, liver, adipose cells)

Can also inhibit neuropeptide Y

137
Q

Beta cells

A

Secrete insulin (60% of regulation)

138
Q

Alpha Cells

A

Secrete glucagon (25% of regulation)

139
Q

Delta Cells

A

Secrete somatostatin (15% of regulation)

140
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A

Characterized by chronic high blood glucose

Results from inadequate secretion or action of insulin

141
Q

Type I Diabetes (Insulin-Dependent)

A

AKA juvenile-onset diabetes
Autoimmune disease: beta cells destroyed so no insulin made = insulin injections required
Also marked by abnormally high glucagon secretions
Stimulates glycogenolysis in liver  further increase blood glc

142
Q

Type II Diabetes (Insulin-Independent)

A 
AKA mature-onset diabetes
Most common (95%)
Caused by very low target cell sensitivity to insulin = insulin resistance. Higher risk with obesity
143
Q

Insulin Sensitivity

A

Varies from person to person, but exercise increases skeletal muscle sensitivity to insulin and obesity decreases target cell sensitivity to insulin

Human Physiology (8 decks)

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