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Human Physiology > Exam 2 Vocab > Flashcards

Exam 2 Vocab Flashcards

1
Q

Choline Acetyl Transferase

A

Enzyme that combines Acetyl CoA and Choline to make ACh

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2
Q

Schwann Cells and Oligodendrocyte

A

Form myelin sheaths in the PNS and CNS, respectively

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3
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Portions of the axon not covered by myelin sheaths. saltatory conduction.
Results in saltatory conduction: Instead of slowly walking the length of the axon, AP jumps from node to node

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4
Q

Neurotrophins

A

In fetal brain: Promote Neural Growth

In Adults: Aid in maintenance and recovery of neural cells

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5
Q

Astrocytes

A

Influence production of ion channels and enzymes that can destroy toxic substances by secreting glial-derived neurotrophic factor

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6
Q

Absolute Refractory Period

A

Period when you CANNOT have another AP

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7
Q

Relative Refractory Period

A

Period of rest, when you CAN have another AP, if the stimulus is strong enough (though it is not likely)

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8
Q

Presynaptic Cell

A

Transmits Signal

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9
Q

Postsynaptic Cell

A

Receives Signal

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10
Q

Connexins

A

Proteins that form gap junctions in cells (i.e. intercalated discs in cardiac muscle)

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11
Q

Synaptotagmin

A

Ca sensor in presynaptic cells that causes exocytosis of synaptic vesicles

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12
Q

Nuclei (not as in, nucleus, plural)

A

Clusters of cell bodies In the CNS

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13
Q

Ganglia

A

Clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

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14
Q

Tract

A

Bundles of axons in the CNS

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15
Q

Nerves

A

Bundles of axons in the PNS

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16
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP’s)

A

Neurotransmitters cause depolarization events, opening Na+ and Ca+ channels (in)

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17
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP’s)

A

Neurotransmitters cause depolarization events, opening Cl- channels (in) and K+ channels (out)

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18
Q

Acetylcholine

A
  • Parasympathetic
  • When it binds to receptors, it opens ion channels
  • Decreases heart rate
  • It can be inhibitory or excitatory depending on what it’s binding to
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19
Q

AChE

A

Regulates ACh in the synapse. Breaks down ACh into acetate and choline. Choline is taken back into the cell to make more ACh later

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20
Q

Nicotinic Receptors

A
  • Inotropic
  • Receptors are the channels
  • Rapid response in cells
  • Neuromuscular junctions, ganglionic neurons, adrenal medulla
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21
Q

Muscarinic Receptors

A
  • Work by being associated with G proteins
  • GPCR (G protein coupled receptor)
  • Metabotropic
  • Slow response, because the receptor is not the channel. A bunch of other stuff has to happen within the cell in order for the channel to open
  • CNS, pm of smooth and cardiac muscle, and glands
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22
Q

Agonists

A

Drugs that will stimulate a receptor (i.e. nicotine and muscarine)

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23
Q

Antagonists

A

Drugs that will inhibit a receptor (i.e. atropine and curare)

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24
Q

Monamine Oxidase (MAO)

A

Degrades monoamines in the presynaptic cell and will activate GPCR’s with cAMP as a second messenger

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25
Q

Ionotropic Receptor

A

No second messenger, fast acting, receptor is the channel etc.

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26
Q

Metabotropic Receptor

A

Second messenger system, slower acting, uses G proteins

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27
Q

Meninges

A

Protective covering around the brain, kinda like shrink wrap

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28
Q

Gyrus

A

Folds

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29
Q

Sulcus

A

Creases

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30
Q

3 Main Regions

A

Prosencephalon (forebrain); Mesencephalon (midbrain); Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

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31
Q

Ventricles

A

Contain CSF (cerebral spinal fluid)

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32
Q

Prosencephalon

A

Telencephalon and Diencephalon

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33
Q

Mesencephalon

A

Mesencephalon

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34
Q

Rhombencephalon

A

Mesencephalon and Myelencephalon

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35
Q

Contralateral Hemispheres

A

Left controls right, and right controls left

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36
Q

Telencephalon (forebrain)

A

Cerebrum. Responsible for higher mental functions

Left: Language, speech, writing, calculations, and understanding music

Right: Visual-spatial tasks, facial recognition, composing music, reading maps

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37
Q

Frontal Lobe (forebrain)

A

Voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles, personality, higher intellectual processes, verbal communication

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38
Q

Parietal Lobe (forebrain)

A

A lot of language stuff and…

Somatesthetic interpretation (touch senses), understanding speech and formulating words to express thoughts and emotions, interpretations of textures and shapes

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39
Q

Occipital Lobe (forebrain)

A

A lot of vision stuff and…

Interpretation of movements in focusing the eye, correlation of visual images with previous visual experiences and other sensory stimuli, conscious perception of vision

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40
Q

Temporal Lobe (forebrain)

A

A lot of hearing stuff and…

Interpretation of auditory sensations; storage (memory) of auditory and visual experiences

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41
Q

Insula (forebrain)

A

Memory; sensory (principally pain) and visceral integration

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42
Q

Broca’s area (forebrain)

A

Motor speech

Broca’s area aphasia. Brocas area not working… So people with this are hesitant to speak, because they can’t control their mouths well or articulate words well

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43
Q

Wernicke’s area (forebrain)

A

Language comprehension

Wernicke’s area aphasia: No trouble talking, but they don’t make sense.

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44
Q

Precentral Gyrus (forebrain)

A

Motor cortex

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45
Q

Central Sulcus (forebrain)

A

Physical division between frontal and parietal lobes

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46
Q

Limbic System (Emotional Brain)

A

Controls aggression, fear, feeding, sex, goal-directed behaviors

Composed of: Amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus are all central components of the limbic system

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47
Q

Memory

A

Main Areas: temporal lobe, hippocampus, amygdala (fear responses), prefrontal cortex (short term memory), left inferior frontal lobe (math)

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48
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Requires gene activation, protein production, formation of new synapses

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49
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

Caused by the formation of extracellular amyloid beta and the accumulation of Tau protein

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50
Q

Diencephalon (forebrain)

A

Consists of the epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus and part of the pituitary gland

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51
Q

Thalamus (forebrain, diencephalon)

A

Filters out background noise and sensory information.

Relay center for all sensory information except for smell

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52
Q

Epithalamus (forebrain, diencephalon)

A

Contains pineal complex –> circadian rhythms and melatonin secretion (helps you sleep)

53
Q

Hypothalamus (forebrain, diencephalon)

A
  • Main job is regulating homeostasis (body temp, hunger etc.)
  • Part of the limbic system
  • Contains center for emotions (limbic stuff)
  • Master control gland of the endocrine system
54
Q

Mesencephalon (midbrain)

A

Superior colliculi (reflex optical responses)

55
Q

Metencephalon (hindbrain)

A

Cerebellum and pons

56
Q

Myelencephalon (hindbrain)

A

Medulla oblongata

57
Q

Cerebellum (hindbrain, metencephalon)

A
  • 2nd largest brain structure
  • Outside is gray, inside is white
  • Responsible for motor coordination, and aquisition of sensory data, memory, and emotion
  • Alcohol effects the cerebellum
  • Only 10% of brain weight, but it has as many neurons as the rest of the brain combined
58
Q

Pons (hindbrain, metencephalon)

A

Controls alertness, dream states and sleep cycles

59
Q

Medulla Oblongata (hindbrain, myelecephalon)

A
  • Reflex centers for breathing, basal vasodilation, and heart rate
  • If it is damages, you probably aren’t going to survive
  • Pathways for communication betweens spinal cord and brain
  • Located right above spinal cord
60
Q

Varicosities

A
  • Swellings within the axon that release neurotransmitters along the way.
  • Synapses en passant: “in passing”
  • Often have antagonistic effects between PS and S
61
Q

Preganglionic

A

From CNS to PNS

Always release ACh

62
Q

Postganglionic

A

From PNS

63
Q

Sympathetic Division (ANS)

A

Increases heart rate; Fight or flight, digestive activity decreases

postganglionic cells will be longer, preganglionic cells will be shorter

64
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Decrease heart rate; Rest and digest. Digestive activity increases

preganglionic neurons will be longer, postganglionic neurons will be shorter

65
Q

Preganglionic cell body location

A

S: thoracic and lumber regions of the spinal cord
PS: hindbrain and sacral region of the spinal cord

66
Q

Ganglia location

A

S: Chain that runs close to the spinal cord
PS: Close to the effector (target organ, smooth muscle or glands)

67
Q

Number of postganglionic neurons that synapse with a single preganglionic neuron

A

S: 10 or more (want a faster response. A need to increase oxygen levels and blood flow very quickly)
PS: Three or less (not as much of a need for a fast response, not as many connections)

68
Q

Adrenergic Stimulation

A

Stimulated by epinephrine or norepinephrine (S)

Stimulatory (alpha) or inhibitory (beta)

69
Q

Beta Adrenergic Receptors

A

Work by using GCPR’s and second messenger systems
Uses cAMP
Inhibitory

70
Q

Alpha Adrenergic Receptors

A

Work by using GCPR’s and second messenger systems
Uses a Ca2+
Stimulatory

71
Q

Cholinergic Stimulation

A

Nicotinic or Muscarinic ACh receptors

72
Q

Nicotinic Cholinergic Stimulation

A 
Always stimulatory (ligand-gated ion channels, either K or Na).
Blocked by curare
73
Q

Muscarinic Cholinergic Stimulation

A

Stimulatory or inhibitory, coupled to G-proteins and second messenger
Blocked by atropine

74
Q

Nocireceptors

A
  • Pain receptors
  • Glutamate and Substance P = main neurotransmitters
  • Depolarize when tissues are damaged
75
Q

Proprioceptors

A

Found in muscles, tendons, joins –> sense of body position and fine motor control

76
Q

Cutaneous receptors

A

In the skin, touch pressure, cold, heat, and pain

77
Q

Special Senses

A

sight, hearing, taste etc…

78
Q

Exteroceptors

A

external, respond to stimuli outside

79
Q

Interoceptors

A

internal stimuli, inside organs

80
Q

Phasic Receptors

A

Responds with a quick burst of activity, but quickly adapt and decrease response (i.e. smell)

81
Q

Tonic Receptors

A

Receptors that are slow-adapting; maintain high firing rates as long as stimulus is present (i.e. Pain)

82
Q

Generator (receptor) potential

A

Stimuli produce depolarizations called “generator potentials.” Going to keep firing until it reaches threshold. When it reaches threshold, it created an action potential

83
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Receptors that bind to chemicals in the air or in liquid

- Taste and Smell

84
Q

Gustatory receptors

A

Taste

50-100 specialized epithelial cells

85
Q

Olfactory receptors

A
  • In the olfactory epithelium of the nasal cavity
  • Sustentacular cells oxidize hydrophobic volatile odors, causing us to react
  • GPCR’s (metabotropic)
86
Q

How smell works

A

Odor binding cleaves G-protein –> activates adenylate cyclase to make cAMP out of ATP

cAMP opens Na and Ca channels (Causing depolarization) –> graded depolarization that leads to an AP

Up to 50 G-proteins/receptors = increased sensitivity through amplification

Each of the 380 receptors has up to 50 G-proteins

87
Q

Vestibular Apparatus (inner ear)

A
  • Provides a sense of equilibrium
  • Located in the inner ear
  • Consists of Otolith organs and Semicircular canals
88
Q

Auditory Ossicles (middle ear)

A

Tympanic membrane (Ear drum) vibrates, causing the malleus (hammer) to hit the incus, which then causes the stapes to vibrate which will then translate sound to the inner ear, the chochlea

Their job is to translate vibration from the exterior environment to the inner nerves

89
Q

Sclera

A

White part of the eye (collagen fibers), supports and protects

90
Q

Choroid

A

Supplies blood to the eye, middle layer

91
Q

Retina

A

Contains photoreceptor neurons, for photoreception, transmits impulses

  • Forward extension of the brain, so the neural layers face outward toward the incoming light (bad design)
  • Rod and cone shaped photoreceptors
  • Pigment epithelium
92
Q

Lens

A

Transparent, refracts light and focuses onto fovea centralis

93
Q

Cornea

A

Transmits and refracts light

94
Q

Iris

A

Pigment cells and smooth muscle fibers, regulates the diameter of the pupil

95
Q

Pupil

A

The black part of the eye, where light enters

96
Q

Myopia

A

Elongated eyeball, nearsighted

97
Q

Hyperopia

A

Shortened eyeball, farsighted

98
Q

Astigmatism

A

Asymmetry of the cornea and/or lens

99
Q

Optic Disc

A

Blind spot, where neuron axons are gathered and exit as the optic nerve

100
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Rods and cones
Outer segment: Full of flattened discs with photopigment molecules
Inner segment: contains organelle’s

101
Q

Retinal Pigment Epithelium

A

Single layer of cells located under rods and cones

Helps vision by: Phagocytizing shed outer discs and Absorbing scattered light

102
Q

Rods

A

Black and white, contains rhodopsin

103
Q

Rhodopsin

A

Absorption of light causes dissociation into retinaldehyde and opsin = bleaching reaction
Your actual photopigment

104
Q

Retinaldehyde

A

Also called retinal, derived from vitamin A

105
Q

Visual Cycle of Retinal

A

Typically 11-cis form in rhodopsin
Bleaching turns to all-trans form
Must be converted back to 11-cis in pigment epithelial cells

106
Q

Dark current

A

In the dark, photoreceptors inhibit (hyperpolarize) bipolar cells
Na channels in rods and cones are always open, so the cells are always depolarized (action potential)
This depolarization causes them to release a neurotransmitter, hyperpolarizing them

107
Q

Trichromatic

A

3 cone types (S: short, blue; M: medium, green; L: long, red)
Instead of opsin, have photopsins

108
Q

Fovea Centralis

A

A little dip, the portion of the retina where vision is the best

109
Q

Polar Hormones

A

Water soluble
Can’t pass through membranes, must be injected if used as a drug
Receptors are on the cell membrane

110
Q

Non-polar Hormones

A

Insoluble in water
Lipophilic hormones, they can dissolve really easily in a plasma membrane, they can pass through easily
Receptors are inside the cell

111
Q

Endocrine Glands

A

Ductless: secrete hormones directly into blood

Hormones carried to target cells with receptors

112
Q

Hormones

A

Regulate body metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
They have high specificity (Lock and key fit), high affinity (bond strength), and low capacity (not many receptors, easily saturated)

113
Q

Lipophilic Hormones (nuclear hormone receptors)

A

i.e. steroid and thyroid
Need carrier proteins to help carry them through the blood stream to target cells where they dissociate from carrier and diffuse across plasma membrane
- Activate genetic transcription by hormone binding –> act as transcription factors (help transcription) –> produce new proteins metabolic changes inside cell

114
Q

Nuclear Hormone Receptors

A

Two Domains: ligand-binding and DNA-binding

115
Q

Genomic Hormone Receptors

A
  • Stimulates genetic transcription
  • Receptors usually in cytoplasm, sometimes in nucleus
  • Hormone binds to receptor then translocates to nucleus
  • Hormone-receptor complex binds DNA hormone response element
  • Hormone response elements have 2 “half-sites”
  • 2 ligand-bound receptors must bind = dimerization
  • Dimerization forms homodimer of 2 of the same complexes
116
Q

Coactivators and Corepressors

A

Can change effects of a given hormone in different cells

117
Q

Thyroid Hormone Action

A

Hormone response element on DNA has 2 half-sites: 1 for T3 receptors (TXR) and another for a 9-cis-retinoic acid receptor (RXR)
T3 binding removes corepressors
Binding proteins help T3 get into the nucleus
Only when TR and RXR bind to the hormone response element is a gene activated

118
Q

Thyroxine

A

T4, four molecules of iodine, complexed to thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) and travels to target cells

119
Q

TXR Receptor

A

For triiodothyronine (T3, Activated thyroid hormone)

120
Q

RXR Receptor

A

Other half-site, for 9-cis-retinoic acid

121
Q

Polar Hormones That Use 2nd Messenger

A 
Bind to receptors on the cell surface
2nd Messenger Systems:
- Adenylate cyclase
- Phospholipase C
- Tyrosine kinase
122
Q

Adenylate Cyclase (cAMP) System

A

Used by epinephrine and norepinephrine

  • Binds to beta-adrenergic receptors
  • G-protein dissociates (alpha-subunit) –> activates adenylate cyclase
  • Adenylate Cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
  • cAMP activates protein kinase, altering cell metabolism
  • cAMP inactivated by phosphodiesterase
123
Q

Homodimer

A

Two of the same complexes (i.e. Steroid)

124
Q

Heterodimer

A

Two different complexes (i.e. TXR and RXR)

125
Q

Phosphodiesterase

A

Deactivates cAMP

126
Q

Phospholipase C System

A

Used by epinephrine in some cells

  • Binds to alpha-adrenergic receptors
  • G-proteins dissociates, activate phospholipase C
  • Phospholipase C produces IP3 and DAG
  • IP3 releases stored Ca+ from ER
  • Ca+ activates calmodulin which activates protein kinases
127
Q

Calmodulin

A

Activates protein kinases to modify other enzymes, altering cell metabolism (phospholipase C system)

128
Q

cAMP

A

Activates protein kinase, phosphorylating target proteins, altering cell metabolism (Adenylate Cyclase System)

129
Q

Tyrosine Kinase System

A

Used by insulin and growth factors

  • Receptor is also a tyrosine kinase enzyme (ligand outside, enzyme inside)
  • Ligand binding causes autophosphorylation
  • Phosphorylates Insulin receptor substrate proteins, activating other signaling molecule
  • Signalling cascade occurs

Human Physiology (8 decks)

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