Exam 3 Review Flashcards
1
Q
Social Psychology
A
- The study of how people influence thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes
- Humans are highly social
2
Q
Attitudes
A
- fundamental attribution error (FAE)
- cognitive dissonance
3
Q
Attribution:
A
- Process by which we assign causes to behavior
- (as humans we are prone to trying to explain why something occurs)
4
Q
FAE:
A
- tendency to overestimate dispositional influences on others’ behavior
and underestimate situational influences on others behavior
5
Q
Jones and harris (1967):
A
The castro study
-Debators: students were randomly assigned to defend pro- or anti- Castro positions in a debate
- REGARDLESS of their actual feelings
- Raters: subjects were asked to rate how actually pro- Castro they thought the debators were
- Raters thought pro- castro debators were actually pro- castro, DESPITE knowing topics were assigned
attributes behavior to internal rather than external causes
- When reasoning about ourselves, we do the opposite!
-Overestimate situational factors
- Underestimate dispositional factors
6
Q
Cognitive dissonance theory
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- Unpleasant feeling of tension or unrest that results from conflicting thoughts or beliefs
- Humans dont like to feel this way. So, we use clever strategies for getting around it
7
Q
dissonance reduction strategies
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(all involved changing our minds after an action)
-Avoid dissonant information
-Firm up beleifs to justify an action (preference reports)
-Generate a new belief to reconcile the conflict (seekers cult)
-Change a beleif to justify an action (insufficient-justification effect)
8
Q
Conformity
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- tendency to alter behavior as a result of group pressure
o Face the rear video: confederates all face away from the elevator door and the candid subject will eventually turn away as well due to conformity
9
Q
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959):
A
- Participants completed extremely boring task
- Were paid to lie about experiment to next subject (either $1 or $20)
- Then they were asked to rate the study’s enjoyableness
- People offered $1 to lie rated the experiment as more enjoyable
(insufficient justification)
10
Q
Social Influence
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- When the presence of others influences our behaviors
- Conformity
o Asch’s conformity experiment - Bystander Non-intervention
11
Q
Why do we conform?
A
Two general reasons:
- Information influence: Others might know better
- Normative influence: we want to fit in
12
Q
Asch Experiments
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- Tested whether people conform and why
- Subjects seated in a group of 6-8 people
- Asked to perform a simple visual perception task
- BUT – all other people are confederates (actors)
- Confederates were instructed to give the wrong answer
- Actual subject seated second-to-last
13
Q
Results: (asch)
A
- 75% of subjects conformed at least once
o Some on all, some only 1 or 2 trials - On average, subjects conformed about 40% of the time
14
Q
Factors that influenced conformity:
A
Unanimity: if another person gave the correct answer, conformity dropped
* Differences in wrong answer: if others differed from the majority, conformity dropped
* Group size: a larger group resulted in greater conformity, up to ~5-6 people
14
Q
But why did subjects conform?
A
- In another version, subjects were asked to write down their answers, instead of saying them out loud
o Much less conformity in written answers
o Suggests NORMATIVE influence is responsible
15
Q
Kitty Genovese
A
- “37 who saw murder didn’t call the police”
- She was attacked and chased after by a man. Tried to get away and get help but everyone just watched. Nobody helped.
16
Q
Bystander Nonintervention
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the presence of others makes us less likely to act in emergencies
17
Q
Bystander nonintervention…why?
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Two reasons:
- Pluralistic ignorance: error of assuming no one in a group perceives things as we do
When something strange happens:
o Social referencing: looks to others for cues
o We tend to act in accordance with others - Diffusion of responsibility: the presence of others makes each person feel less personally responsible
18
Q
Personality
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e.g.
-Genetic & Environmental Influences
-Minnesota twin studies
-Adoption studies
19
Q
Traits
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- Relatively consistent predispositions that influence our behaviour across situations
- Individual characteristics rather than overarching set of characteristics
20
Q
How do we develop traits?
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Interplay between genes & environment
21
Q
Genetic factors:
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Genetic influence on personality
- ½ from each parent
22
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Shared Environmental factors:
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Experiences individual share (and make us more alike)
23
Q
Example: Birth Order matters
A
- Early born
–> Achievement driven, tend towards status quo - Middle born
–>Diplomacy driven, experiences aligned with both sides - Late born
–> More likely to take risks, rebel, support radical ideas
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Non-shared environmental factors:
Experiences individuals do not share (and make us less alike)
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Twin Studies
* Fraternal (Dizygotic twins)
–> Share 50% genetic info
–> Same as if 2 siblings born at once
* Identical (Monozygotic twins)
–> Share 100% genetic info
* Allows for study of genetic contributions to personality
–> Test how traits vary when genes don’t vary
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Minnesota Twin Studies
* Longitudinal study of twins conducted by minnesota university
–> Investigating genetic and environmental influences on the development of psychological traits
–> Put together registries of twins for study
–> 130 pairs of twins that were raised apart
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How much of personality is genetic?
How well do the traits of identical twins correlate?
* About 50% similar
* Genetic factors DO influence personality, but not all of it
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Does a shared environment influence personality?
Do traits of monozygotic twins raised apart differ more than traits of monozygotic twins raised together?
* Nope.
* Shared environment has very little influence on personality
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Adoption Studies
* Children adopted at birth are compared to adopted parents and birth parents
–> More similar to their biological parents despite them being raised by their adopted parents
* Separated biological siblings are more alike than adopted siblings raised in the same home
* Genes appear to influence personality but do not determine it
* Causes of personality aren’t simple
–> Personality: “Polygenic trait”
° Influenced by sets of genes
–> No evidence for single “trait genes”
–> Many different genes and factors involved
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Takeaways
Genetics do influence personality, but not all of it
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What is a psychological disorder?
* Difficult to define, even for professionals
* Psychological disorders are complex and diverse
* What we consider “abnormal” isn’t stable
* Varies across time and culture
* Family-resemblance view: members of a category share some, but not necessarily all, features
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Statistical rarity:
are uncommon in the population
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Subjective distress:
causes the person distress
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Impairment:
interfere with daily functioning
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Societal disapproval:
socially unacceptable
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Biological dysfunction:
involves brain impairments
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Diagnosis: how do we define and diagnose?
* DSM-5: manual outlining a standard system for labeling and diagnosing mental disorders
o Biopsychosocial approach: recognizes the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors
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Classifying individuals—
* Classifying individuals can be helpful
* Classifying individuals can be harmful
* We do not classify individuals by their diagnosis
* Say “individual with schizophrenia” not “schizophrenic”
* Comorbidity: co-occurrence of 2 or more diagnoses
o Ex: panic disorder and agoraphobia
these disorders are “comorbid”
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Cultural Variations
* what we consider a mental disorder is culturally determined
o homosexuality
* some mental disorders are culturally specific
o anorexia
o koro: a cultural belief that genitals will be sucked into the abdomen and eventually disappear
o taijin kyofusho: anxiety “I’m so offensive to you that I have to stay away”
* Rates of disorders vary across cultures
o ADHD
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Anxiety Disorders
* Panic disorder
* Generalized anxiety disorder
* Phobias
* Obsessive-compulsive disorder
*Post-traumatic stress disorder (related to classification)
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Anxiety Disorder
* Disorders in which the most common symptom is fear or anxiety
* 29% of people will meet the criteria for an anxiety disorder at some point in their lives
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Panic Disorder –
* Panic: feelings of helpless terror
* Panic attack: brief, intense episodes of extreme fear and feelings of impending death or insanity
o May feel: heart racing, shortness of breath, dizziness
o No specific trigger: can occur at any time without warning
Characteristics:
* Anxiety related to having panic attacks
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Panic Disorder Diagnosis:
Diagnosis:
* Experienced at least two panic attacks
* Each followed by at least 1 month of anxiety over the occurrence of another attack
* 2-5% of the US population meet criteria
* 20-25% of college students report at least one panic attack
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Characteristics
* Constant, undifferentiated worry
* Worry about common things, but much more
* Muscle tension
* Difficulty sleeping
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Diagnosis:
* At least 6 months of self-disrupting worry, independent of any other disorder
* 3-6% of US population meet criteria
46
Obedience
* adherence to instructions from those of higher authority
* good and sides (Helps us to accomplish goals, helps society run smoothly)
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Miligram Experiment
* subjects responded to newspaper ad for a memory experiment
* were assigned roles as "teacher" and "learner
* learner's job was to memorize word pairs, for each mistake, the teacher administered a shock
* shocks increased in voltage with each mistakes (15-450 volts)
* learners make frequent mistakes
*if the teacher hesitates, the experimenter replies with scripted responses such as "experiment must go on"
* measured how far subjects would go
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Milgram experiment predictions
*Experts at time predicted: most people would not go past 150 volts, only 1/1000 people
* learner is a confederate, was not actually shocked (the experiment is rigged so that the subject is always the teacher)
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Milgram experiment results
*Approximately 2/3 of subjects administered the highest shock
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Some factors influencing obedience:
* proximity
--> closer to learner: decrease in obedience
--> closer to experiment: increase in obedience
* legitimacy of authority:
--> college campus
--> presence of lab coat
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Deindividuation
* Tendency for people to engage in uncharacteristic behavior when stripped of usual identity (Stanford experiment)
* people behave more like a group, less like an individual (feeling of anonymity)
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Stanford Prison Study:
* Brought to basement of psychology building
--> Designed as a “prison”
* Each given role signifier
--> Guards wear khaki uniforms and mirrored glasses
--> Create authority, anonymity
* Prisoners referred to by number, wore prison garb with their number on it
* Guards told their job is to keep prisoners in line
RESULTS:
* By the second day the subjects internalised their roles
* Guards behaved cruelly, demanding prisoners to perform humiliating tasks
* Prisoners waged rebellions, held hunger strikes, became depressed & hopeless
* 2 prisoners released early due to emotional disturbance
* 2-week experiment terminated after only 6 days
CONCLUSIONS:
* Subjects deindividuated
--> No longer individuals, but “prisoners” and “guards”
--> Lost themselves in their social roles
LESSONS:
* The "power of the situation" can cause us to be less self-aware
* especially when acting as part of a group
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Specific phobia:
Arachnophobia (starts to interfere with daily activities)
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Acrophobia
fear of heights extreme. What makes someone have a phobia aside from regular fear is diagnosis and it makes you incapable of doing things you would usually be able to do
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Agoraphobia:
“fear of the marketplace”
-fear situations where escape may be difficult, or help may not be available if needed
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Social anxiety disorder:
* excessive fear of social situations; being closely watched, judged, and criticized by others
* Diagnosis: Fear must be long-standing and disrupt normal functioning
7-13% of U.S. population meet criteria at some point in their lives
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Obsessive compulsive order (OCD)-
Obsession and/or compulsions must consume at least one hour each day and seriously interfere with daily functioning
1-2% of U.S. population meet criteria
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Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
* Marked emotional disturbance after extremely traumatic event
--> common in soldiers
flashbacks and/or nightmares
--> loss of sleep
startling easily
Diagnosis-
--> prevalent distress stemming from dangerous or life threatening event
up to 7% of the U.S. population may meet criteria
(But rates vary with culture and world events)
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Major depressive disorder:
* Actual name for when you say “they have depression”
* prolonged sadness, self-blame
feelings of worthlessness
* absence of pleasure
changes in sleep or eating habits
suicidal thoughts
Diagnosis:
very severe symptoms that last at least 2 weeks
up to 16% of U.S. population meets criteria
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Persistent depressive disorder:
(AKA Dysthymia DSM4)
Mild depressive symptoms for at least two years
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Bipolar Disorder
Characteristics:
* Presence of both depressive and manic episodes, in alternation
* Manic episode
o Dramatically elevated mood
o Heighten self-esteem
o Decreased need for sleep
o Hyperactivity
o Reckless decisions
62
Bipolar Disorder Diagnosis:
- Depression and experience of at least one manic episode
- 3-4% of US population meet criteria
* Bipolar I: manic episodes and major depression
* Bipolar II: hypomania (mild) and major depression
* Cyclothymia: mild form of BP—characterized by Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD) and at least one episode of mild mania
63
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
AKA: Multiple Personality Disorder
Characteristics:
* Presence of two or more distinct identities that recurrently take control of one person’s body
* Identities called “alters”
o Can be different ages, genders, races
o Usually, distinct personalities and /or abilities that differ from the “host” personality
Including handwriting, eyeglass prescriptions, etc.
* Not well understood and highly controversial
Explanations:
* Posttraumatic model
o Coping mechanism – severe child abuse results in compartmentalizing of the self
o Other alters arise to cope with situations when the host is overwhelmed
* Sociocognitive model
o Alters are mainly created in therapy through suggestion, hypnosis, and coaxing
o Ex: diagnosis of DID tends to follow media attention
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Schizophrenia
* Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder
o Class of disorders involving disruptions in thoughts, perceptions, emotions, etc
Characteristics:
* Severe disorder of thought and emotions, associated with a break from reality
* Severe impairment in daily functioning and relationships
* Symptoms are highly variable
Diagnosis:
* Severe impairment of everyday functioning, plus at least 2/5 of the following:
o Delusions: strongly held beliefs with no basis in reality
Delusion of persecution
Delusions of being controlled
Delusion of grandeur
o Hallucinations: sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli
Seeing imaginary people
Hearing voices…(thought to be a confusion of the person’s inner monologue)
o Disorganized thought and speech; incoherent speech
May arise from meaning, and word association difficulties
o Disorganized behavior
Catatonia: motor problems
Echolalia: repeating phrases like a parrot
o Negative symptoms: lack or reduction in normal thoughts, emotions, drives, and behavior
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What is personality?
* Personality = characteristics, traits, and behaviors that are consistent across time and situations
o How we are as individuals
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Psychoanalytic theory
* Sigmund Freud
* Psychogenic cause of illness: caused by mind not body (e.g. glove anesthesia – there must be a mental cause to which his patients came and complained about having pain in specifically the hand)
* Freud believed in the unconscious mind
* His theory is based on tapping into the unconscious
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Id:
controls primitive urges (unconscious)
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Ego:
main decision maker (parts in the conscious and unconscious)
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Superego
sense of morality (parts in the conscious and unconscious)
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Repression:
memory is driven into the unconscious
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Denial
refusal to admit or remember
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Regression
acting out qualities of a younger age
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Reaction formation
reversing anxiety-causing emotion
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Projection
attribution of negative qualities onto others
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Rationalization
twist unreasonable to sound reasonable
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Intellectualization
focus on facts or impersonal thoughts
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Sublimation
transforming socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal
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Identification w the aggressor
taking on characteristics of, or sympathizing with, a threatening person
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Displacement
redirecting emotions to a safer outlet
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Freud’s theory of personality development
* Psychosexual stages
o Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
* Satisfaction comes from certain behaviors, at certain times
* Fixation: people who are over- or under-satisfied in each stage develop certain traits
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Oral (birth to 12-18 months): focuses on the mouth
o Fixation results in:
* Regression under stress
* A need for reassurance
* Bad habits such as nail-biting or chewing pencils excessive drinking, smoking, overeating
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Anal (1.5-3 years): focus on toilet training
o Fixation results in:
* Anal personality
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Phallic (3-6 years): children are attracted to the opposite-sex parent
o Oedipus complex (for boys)
* Identification with the aggressor
o Electra complex (for girls)
* Penis envy
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Latency (6-12 years):
* sexual impulses are submerged into the unconscious
* No sexual interest (e.g. “down w girls, no more cooties” protest poster)
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Genital (12 years and up):
* sexual impulses reawaken
* If no fixation has occurred, the person engages in healthy romantic relationships
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Criticisms of Freud’s theory:
* Unfalsifiability (cause you can’t measure the unconscious)
* Failed predictions
* Lack of evidence
* Questionable conception of unconscious
* Unrepresentative samples
