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Psychology 100 > Exam 3 Review > Flashcards

Exam 3 Review Flashcards

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1
Q

Social Psychology

A
  • The study of how people influence thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes
  • Humans are highly social
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2
Q

Attitudes

A
  • fundamental attribution error (FAE)
  • cognitive dissonance
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3
Q

Attribution:

A
  • Process by which we assign causes to behavior
  • (as humans we are prone to trying to explain why something occurs)
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4
Q

FAE:

A
  • tendency to overestimate dispositional influences on others’ behavior
    and underestimate situational influences on others behavior
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5
Q

Jones and harris (1967):

A

The castro study
-Debators: students were randomly assigned to defend pro- or anti- Castro positions in a debate
- REGARDLESS of their actual feelings
- Raters: subjects were asked to rate how actually pro- Castro they thought the debators were
- Raters thought pro- castro debators were actually pro- castro, DESPITE knowing topics were assigned
attributes behavior to internal rather than external causes
- When reasoning about ourselves, we do the opposite!
-Overestimate situational factors
- Underestimate dispositional factors

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6
Q

Cognitive dissonance theory

A
  • Unpleasant feeling of tension or unrest that results from conflicting thoughts or beliefs
  • Humans dont like to feel this way. So, we use clever strategies for getting around it
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7
Q

dissonance reduction strategies

A

(all involved changing our minds after an action)
-Avoid dissonant information
-Firm up beleifs to justify an action (preference reports)
-Generate a new belief to reconcile the conflict (seekers cult)
-Change a beleif to justify an action (insufficient-justification effect)

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8
Q

Conformity

A
  • tendency to alter behavior as a result of group pressure
    o Face the rear video: confederates all face away from the elevator door and the candid subject will eventually turn away as well due to conformity
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9
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959):

A
  • Participants completed extremely boring task
  • Were paid to lie about experiment to next subject (either $1 or $20)
  • Then they were asked to rate the study’s enjoyableness
  • People offered $1 to lie rated the experiment as more enjoyable
    (insufficient justification)
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10
Q

Social Influence

A
  • When the presence of others influences our behaviors
  • Conformity
    o Asch’s conformity experiment
  • Bystander Non-intervention
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11
Q

Why do we conform?

A

Two general reasons:

  • Information influence: Others might know better
  • Normative influence: we want to fit in
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12
Q

Asch Experiments

A
  • Tested whether people conform and why
  • Subjects seated in a group of 6-8 people
  • Asked to perform a simple visual perception task
  • BUT – all other people are confederates (actors)
  • Confederates were instructed to give the wrong answer
  • Actual subject seated second-to-last
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13
Q

Results: (asch)

A
  • 75% of subjects conformed at least once
    o Some on all, some only 1 or 2 trials
  • On average, subjects conformed about 40% of the time
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14
Q

Factors that influenced conformity:

A

Unanimity: if another person gave the correct answer, conformity dropped
* Differences in wrong answer: if others differed from the majority, conformity dropped
* Group size: a larger group resulted in greater conformity, up to ~5-6 people

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14
Q

But why did subjects conform?

A
  • In another version, subjects were asked to write down their answers, instead of saying them out loud
    o Much less conformity in written answers
    o Suggests NORMATIVE influence is responsible
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15
Q

Kitty Genovese

A
  • “37 who saw murder didn’t call the police”
  • She was attacked and chased after by a man. Tried to get away and get help but everyone just watched. Nobody helped.
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16
Q

Bystander Nonintervention

A

the presence of others makes us less likely to act in emergencies

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17
Q

Bystander nonintervention…why?

A

Two reasons:

  • Pluralistic ignorance: error of assuming no one in a group perceives things as we do
    When something strange happens:
    o Social referencing: looks to others for cues
    o We tend to act in accordance with others
  • Diffusion of responsibility: the presence of others makes each person feel less personally responsible
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18
Q

Personality

A

e.g.
-Genetic & Environmental Influences
-Minnesota twin studies
-Adoption studies

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19
Q

Traits

A
  • Relatively consistent predispositions that influence our behaviour across situations
  • Individual characteristics rather than overarching set of characteristics
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20
Q

How do we develop traits?

A

Interplay between genes & environment

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21
Q

Genetic factors:

A

Genetic influence on personality
- ½ from each parent

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22
Q

Shared Environmental factors:

A

Experiences individual share (and make us more alike)

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23
Q

Example: Birth Order matters

A
  • Early born
    –> Achievement driven, tend towards status quo
  • Middle born
    –>Diplomacy driven, experiences aligned with both sides
  • Late born
    –> More likely to take risks, rebel, support radical ideas
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24
Q

Non-shared environmental factors:

A

Experiences individuals do not share (and make us less alike)

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25
Q

Twin Studies

A
  • Fraternal (Dizygotic twins)
    –> Share 50% genetic info
    –> Same as if 2 siblings born at once
  • Identical (Monozygotic twins)
    –> Share 100% genetic info
  • Allows for study of genetic contributions to personality
    –> Test how traits vary when genes don’t vary
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26
Q

Minnesota Twin Studies

A
  • Longitudinal study of twins conducted by minnesota university
    –> Investigating genetic and environmental influences on the development of psychological traits
    –> Put together registries of twins for study
    –> 130 pairs of twins that were raised apart
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27
Q

How much of personality is genetic?
How well do the traits of identical twins correlate?

A
  • About 50% similar
  • Genetic factors DO influence personality, but not all of it
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28
Q

Does a shared environment influence personality?
Do traits of monozygotic twins raised apart differ more than traits of monozygotic twins raised together?

A
  • Nope.
  • Shared environment has very little influence on personality
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29
Q

Adoption Studies

A
  • Children adopted at birth are compared to adopted parents and birth parents
    –> More similar to their biological parents despite them being raised by their adopted parents
  • Separated biological siblings are more alike than adopted siblings raised in the same home
  • Genes appear to influence personality but do not determine it
  • Causes of personality aren’t simple
    –> Personality: “Polygenic trait”
    ° Influenced by sets of genes
    –> No evidence for single “trait genes”
    –> Many different genes and factors involved
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30
Q

Takeaways

A

Genetics do influence personality, but not all of it

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31
Q

What is a psychological disorder?

A
  • Difficult to define, even for professionals
  • Psychological disorders are complex and diverse
  • What we consider “abnormal” isn’t stable
  • Varies across time and culture
  • Family-resemblance view: members of a category share some, but not necessarily all, features
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32
Q

Statistical rarity:

A

are uncommon in the population

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33
Q

Subjective distress:

A

causes the person distress

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34
Q

Impairment:

A

interfere with daily functioning

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35
Q

Societal disapproval:

A

socially unacceptable

36
Q

Biological dysfunction:

A

involves brain impairments

37
Q

Diagnosis: how do we define and diagnose?

A
  • DSM-5: manual outlining a standard system for labeling and diagnosing mental disorders
    o Biopsychosocial approach: recognizes the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors
38
Q

Classifying individuals—

A
  • Classifying individuals can be helpful
  • Classifying individuals can be harmful
  • We do not classify individuals by their diagnosis
  • Say “individual with schizophrenia” not “schizophrenic”
  • Comorbidity: co-occurrence of 2 or more diagnoses
    o Ex: panic disorder and agoraphobia
     these disorders are “comorbid”
39
Q

Cultural Variations

A
  • what we consider a mental disorder is culturally determined
    o homosexuality
  • some mental disorders are culturally specific
    o anorexia
    o koro: a cultural belief that genitals will be sucked into the abdomen and eventually disappear
    o taijin kyofusho: anxiety “I’m so offensive to you that I have to stay away”
  • Rates of disorders vary across cultures
    o ADHD
40
Q

Anxiety Disorders

A
  • Panic disorder
  • Generalized anxiety disorder
  • Phobias
  • Obsessive-compulsive disorder
    *Post-traumatic stress disorder (related to classification)
41
Q

Anxiety Disorder

A
  • Disorders in which the most common symptom is fear or anxiety
  • 29% of people will meet the criteria for an anxiety disorder at some point in their lives
42
Q

Panic Disorder –

A
  • Panic: feelings of helpless terror
  • Panic attack: brief, intense episodes of extreme fear and feelings of impending death or insanity
    o May feel: heart racing, shortness of breath, dizziness
    o No specific trigger: can occur at any time without warning
    Characteristics:
  • Anxiety related to having panic attacks
43
Q

Panic Disorder Diagnosis:

A

Diagnosis:

  • Experienced at least two panic attacks
  • Each followed by at least 1 month of anxiety over the occurrence of another attack
  • 2-5% of the US population meet criteria
  • 20-25% of college students report at least one panic attack
44
Q

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Characteristics

A
  • Constant, undifferentiated worry
  • Worry about common things, but much more
  • Muscle tension
  • Difficulty sleeping
45
Q

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Diagnosis:

A
  • At least 6 months of self-disrupting worry, independent of any other disorder
  • 3-6% of US population meet criteria
46
Q

Obedience

A
  • adherence to instructions from those of higher authority
  • good and sides (Helps us to accomplish goals, helps society run smoothly)
47
Q

Miligram Experiment

A
  • subjects responded to newspaper ad for a memory experiment
  • were assigned roles as “teacher” and “learner
  • learner’s job was to memorize word pairs, for each mistake, the teacher administered a shock
  • shocks increased in voltage with each mistakes (15-450 volts)
  • learners make frequent mistakes
    *if the teacher hesitates, the experimenter replies with scripted responses such as “experiment must go on”
  • measured how far subjects would go
48
Q

Milgram experiment predictions

A

*Experts at time predicted: most people would not go past 150 volts, only 1/1000 people
* learner is a confederate, was not actually shocked (the experiment is rigged so that the subject is always the teacher)

49
Q

Milgram experiment results

A

*Approximately 2/3 of subjects administered the highest shock

50
Q

Some factors influencing obedience:

A
  • proximity
    –> closer to learner: decrease in obedience
    –> closer to experiment: increase in obedience
  • legitimacy of authority:
    –> college campus
    –> presence of lab coat
51
Q

Deindividuation

A
  • Tendency for people to engage in uncharacteristic behavior when stripped of usual identity (Stanford experiment)
  • people behave more like a group, less like an individual (feeling of anonymity)
52
Q

Stanford Prison Study:

A
  • Brought to basement of psychology building
    –> Designed as a “prison”
  • Each given role signifier
    –> Guards wear khaki uniforms and mirrored glasses
    –> Create authority, anonymity
  • Prisoners referred to by number, wore prison garb with their number on it
  • Guards told their job is to keep prisoners in line
    RESULTS:
  • By the second day the subjects internalised their roles
  • Guards behaved cruelly, demanding prisoners to perform humiliating tasks
  • Prisoners waged rebellions, held hunger strikes, became depressed & hopeless
  • 2 prisoners released early due to emotional disturbance
  • 2-week experiment terminated after only 6 days
    CONCLUSIONS:
  • Subjects deindividuated
    –> No longer individuals, but “prisoners” and “guards”
    –> Lost themselves in their social roles
    LESSONS:
  • The “power of the situation” can cause us to be less self-aware
  • especially when acting as part of a group
53
Q

Specific phobia:

A

Arachnophobia (starts to interfere with daily activities)

54
Q

Acrophobia

A

fear of heights extreme. What makes someone have a phobia aside from regular fear is diagnosis and it makes you incapable of doing things you would usually be able to do

55
Q

Agoraphobia:

A

“fear of the marketplace”
-fear situations where escape may be difficult, or help may not be available if needed

56
Q

Social anxiety disorder:

A
  • excessive fear of social situations; being closely watched, judged, and criticized by others
  • Diagnosis: Fear must be long-standing and disrupt normal functioning
    7-13% of U.S. population meet criteria at some point in their lives
57
Q

Obsessive compulsive order (OCD)-

A

Obsession and/or compulsions must consume at least one hour each day and seriously interfere with daily functioning
1-2% of U.S. population meet criteria

58
Q

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A
  • Marked emotional disturbance after extremely traumatic event
    –> common in soldiers
    flashbacks and/or nightmares
    –> loss of sleep
    startling easily
    Diagnosis-
    –> prevalent distress stemming from dangerous or life threatening event
    up to 7% of the U.S. population may meet criteria
    (But rates vary with culture and world events)
59
Q

Major depressive disorder:

A
  • Actual name for when you say “they have depression”
  • prolonged sadness, self-blame
    feelings of worthlessness
  • absence of pleasure
    changes in sleep or eating habits
    suicidal thoughts
    Diagnosis:
    very severe symptoms that last at least 2 weeks
    up to 16% of U.S. population meets criteria
60
Q

Persistent depressive disorder:

A

(AKA Dysthymia DSM4)
Mild depressive symptoms for at least two years

61
Q

Bipolar Disorder

Characteristics:

A
  • Presence of both depressive and manic episodes, in alternation
  • Manic episode
    o Dramatically elevated mood
    o Heighten self-esteem
    o Decreased need for sleep
    o Hyperactivity
    o Reckless decisions
62
Q

Bipolar Disorder Diagnosis:

A
  • Depression and experience of at least one manic episode
  • 3-4% of US population meet criteria
  • Bipolar I: manic episodes and major depression
  • Bipolar II: hypomania (mild) and major depression
  • Cyclothymia: mild form of BP—characterized by Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD) and at least one episode of mild mania
63
Q

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

AKA: Multiple Personality Disorder
Characteristics:

A
  • Presence of two or more distinct identities that recurrently take control of one person’s body
  • Identities called “alters”
    o Can be different ages, genders, races
    o Usually, distinct personalities and /or abilities that differ from the “host” personality
     Including handwriting, eyeglass prescriptions, etc.
  • Not well understood and highly controversial

Explanations:

  • Posttraumatic model
    o Coping mechanism – severe child abuse results in compartmentalizing of the self
    o Other alters arise to cope with situations when the host is overwhelmed
  • Sociocognitive model
    o Alters are mainly created in therapy through suggestion, hypnosis, and coaxing
    o Ex: diagnosis of DID tends to follow media attention
64
Q

Schizophrenia

A
  • Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder
    o Class of disorders involving disruptions in thoughts, perceptions, emotions, etc

Characteristics:

  • Severe disorder of thought and emotions, associated with a break from reality
  • Severe impairment in daily functioning and relationships
  • Symptoms are highly variable

Diagnosis:

  • Severe impairment of everyday functioning, plus at least 2/5 of the following:
    o Delusions: strongly held beliefs with no basis in reality
     Delusion of persecution
     Delusions of being controlled
     Delusion of grandeur
    o Hallucinations: sensory perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli
     Seeing imaginary people
     Hearing voices…(thought to be a confusion of the person’s inner monologue)
    o Disorganized thought and speech; incoherent speech
     May arise from meaning, and word association difficulties
    o Disorganized behavior
     Catatonia: motor problems
     Echolalia: repeating phrases like a parrot
    o Negative symptoms: lack or reduction in normal thoughts, emotions, drives, and behavior
65
Q

What is personality?

A
  • Personality = characteristics, traits, and behaviors that are consistent across time and situations
    o How we are as individuals
66
Q

Psychoanalytic theory

A
  • Sigmund Freud
  • Psychogenic cause of illness: caused by mind not body (e.g. glove anesthesia – there must be a mental cause to which his patients came and complained about having pain in specifically the hand)
  • Freud believed in the unconscious mind
  • His theory is based on tapping into the unconscious
67
Q

Id:

A

controls primitive urges (unconscious)

68
Q

Ego:

A

main decision maker (parts in the conscious and unconscious)

69
Q

Superego

A

sense of morality (parts in the conscious and unconscious)

70
Q

Repression:

A

memory is driven into the unconscious

71
Q

Denial

A

refusal to admit or remember

72
Q

Regression

A

acting out qualities of a younger age

73
Q

Reaction formation

A

reversing anxiety-causing emotion

74
Q

Projection

A

attribution of negative qualities onto others

75
Q

Rationalization

A

twist unreasonable to sound reasonable

75
Q

Intellectualization

A

focus on facts or impersonal thoughts

75
Q

Sublimation

A

transforming socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal

75
Q

Identification w the aggressor

A

taking on characteristics of, or sympathizing with, a threatening person

75
Q

Displacement

A

redirecting emotions to a safer outlet

75
Q

Freud’s theory of personality development

A
  • Psychosexual stages
    o Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
  • Satisfaction comes from certain behaviors, at certain times
  • Fixation: people who are over- or under-satisfied in each stage develop certain traits
75
Q

Oral (birth to 12-18 months): focuses on the mouth

A

o Fixation results in:
* Regression under stress
* A need for reassurance
* Bad habits such as nail-biting or chewing pencils excessive drinking, smoking, overeating

76
Q

Anal (1.5-3 years): focus on toilet training

A

o Fixation results in:
* Anal personality

76
Q

Phallic (3-6 years): children are attracted to the opposite-sex parent

A

o Oedipus complex (for boys)
* Identification with the aggressor
o Electra complex (for girls)
* Penis envy

77
Q

Latency (6-12 years):

A
  • sexual impulses are submerged into the unconscious
  • No sexual interest (e.g. “down w girls, no more cooties” protest poster)
78
Q
A
79
Q

Genital (12 years and up):

A
  • sexual impulses reawaken
  • If no fixation has occurred, the person engages in healthy romantic relationships
80
Q

Criticisms of Freud’s theory:

A
  • Unfalsifiability (cause you can’t measure the unconscious)
  • Failed predictions
  • Lack of evidence
  • Questionable conception of unconscious
  • Unrepresentative samples

Psychology 100 (10 decks)

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