Exam 3 Ch 12 Flashcards
Well-defined vs. ill-defined problems: understand the difference [placeholder]
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Well-defined problems
- clear specific goal state
- clear specific procedures that can lead to that goal state
- this chapter mostly focuses on well defined problems
Ill-defined problems
- unclear goal state… what even constitutes success?
- unclear what procedures can or can’t be used to move toward the goal
- many real-world problems are ill-defined. Ex: happy relationship, climate change, self actualization
3 Theoretical Approaches
Information Processing Approach - Problem-solving as mentally representing a problem and searching through problem space
Gestalt Psychology - Problem-solving as restructuring (changing our mental representation of the problem)
Analogical Approach - Problem solving as mapping representations of multiple problems onto each other
Information Processing Approach Parts of a problem
- Initial state (where you start)
- Intermediate spaces (between initial and goal)
- Goal state (end state)
- Problem space - the set of all possible states
- operators: Which moves are allowed (legal) for moving between states
Why can’t we mentally represent the entire problem space
We can’t mentally be everywhere all at once
Tower of Hanoi: Why is it used as an example? [not sure about this one…]
To show the constraints of the mind…
- Workin memory limits
- Time to access LTM
- Time to store into LTM
- Serial processing
Ways of searching problem space [placeholder]
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Algorithmic
- a systematic procedure that is guaranteed to lead to the correct solution (all possibilities are considred) “brute force” (ex: try every # combination on a lock)
- pro: guaranteed solution (complete search)
- con: time consuming, often too many possibilties
Heuristic
- Method of guiding search so that the solution is likely, but not guaranteed
- pro: less cumbersome processing
- con: no guarantee of solution
Hill Climbing Strategy
Assess current state and possible next states, choose best, and move forward
Working backwards
Constrain search by considering goal state and (given the legal operators) what possible states preceded
Means-ends analysis
- reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state, by creating subgoals (breaks overall goal into smaller goals)
Trial & error [exactly what is sounds like. skip]
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According to the Gestalt Approach, what is the main thing that prevents us from realizing a problem to a solution?
You start out with one mental representation about a problem, and can’t see how to solve it
This happens when mental representation is ill defined with goals, means, and problem space
Restructuring
Can change your mental representation and the solution becomes more easy to see
Insight
A sudden realization (aha/lightbulb moment)
Incubation
When you come up with the solution to a problem after spending some time away from it
Challenges to problem solving [placeholder]
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Fixation (mental set)
We have a hard time considering multiple strategies
Functional Fixedness
The tendency to use familiar objects in familar ways rather than creative ways
Example Problems
9 dots (go outside of the box to connect dots with 4 lines)
Candle Wall (empty the box of thumbtacks, use the thumbtacks to nail the box to the wall, put the candle into the box, and light the candle with the match.
2 strings (swing heavy object like a pendulum to tie strings)
Analogical [placeholder]
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The tumor problem Gick & Holyoak (1980)
- With an anological story and a hint people can more easily solve problems
- have multiple low-intensity lights focus on the tumor and destroy it
Results: 10% got the answer with no analogy, 30% with analogy, 75% with analogy and hint
People do not relate things to each other when the surface structures of problems are so different even if the deep structures are the same
The steps for analogical problem solving: Notice, map, apply [placeholder]
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Notice
- Notice the analogy (deep structure, not surface structure)
Map source
problem to target problem
Apply
Apply mapping to generate parallel solution in target problem
ex: fortress problem to tumor problem
Surface Structure
Details that are not central to the problem (irrelevant details)
ex: surgery castle; inclined place
Deep structure
The central underlying concepts (the actual meaning)
- ex: convergin forces; conservation of energy
- Experts can see these
Expertise (Why experts do better than novices)
More knowledge
- Know patterns, can make bigger chunks to overcome limits of working memory
- Better organized knowledge: can see deep structures
Curse of knowledge
Once you have gained expertise, it’s very difficult to remember/imagine the novice perspective
Creativity
Anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility
Divergent Thinking
- Open-ended, generates lots of possible solutions
- new connections between existing ideas (analogies?)
Is brainstorming better done individually or with a group?
Individually, other peoples’ ideas can stunt our own…Group Think
What are some things creative people do? [placeholder]
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Daydreaming
Volitional daydreaming: purposeful mind wandering
Solitude
Avoiding distractions; giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning
Mindfulness
Focused attention meditation: focus on one thing, such as the breath, and return to it when distracted
Open monitoring meditation - pay attention to whatever comes up and follow it unti the next thing (free associating)
