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AP II > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

● Some mediators can be both a neurotransmitter and

a hormone

A

Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Oxytocin

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2
Q

Explain Oxytocin as a neurotransmitter and hormone

A

Neurotransmitter: released throughout the brain and
expressed by neurons

Hormone: released from the pituitary gland into blood,
acting on breast and uterine tissue

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3
Q

Secrete hormones into interstitial fluid and blood surrounding the secretory cells (TSH for example)

A

ENDO- “Within”

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4
Q

Secrete their product into ducts that release into body cavities, lumen of organs, or to outer surface (skin) Sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous, salivary, mammary, ceruminous, lacrimal

A

EXO- “Outside”

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5
Q

Hormone Receptors are ____ (composition)

A

cellular proteins

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6
Q

Occurs when too much hormone present

Reduction of receptors means less sensitivity to the circulating hormone

If not enough receptors, some of the hormone will get metabolized unused…not as effective

A

Receptor Down-regulation

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7
Q

Occurs when not enough hormone present Increase of receptors means more sensitivity to the circulating hormone

If more receptors present, better chance at all of the circulating hormone being used

A

Receptor Up-regulation

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8
Q

Endocrine Action

● The hormone is distributed in blood and binds to distant target cells (most, but not all hormones)

● Example: _____ pituitary releases thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which binds to receptors on cells of the thyroid as no other cells in the body should have receptors for this hormone

A

Anterior

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9
Q

Circulating vs Local Hormones

A

● Circulating hormones (the majority) – pass from secretory cells to the interstitial fluid into the blood stream

● Local hormones- act on a neighboring cell or the same cell without entering the bloodstream

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10
Q

(the majority) – pass from secretory cells to the interstitial fluid into the blood stream

A

● Circulating hormones

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11
Q
  • act on a neighboring cell or the same cell without entering the bloodstream
A

● Local hormones

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12
Q

the majority of hormones are circulating or local?

A

circulating

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13
Q

hormones that act on neighboring cells

hormones that act on same cell

A

Paracrines

Autocrines

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14
Q

hormones that act on neighboring cells

A

Paracrines-

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15
Q

hormones that act on same cell

A

Autocrines-

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16
Q

– tend to linger in blood stream minutes to hours

A

Circulating hormones

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17
Q

Local hormones act….

A

quickly

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18
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones: Most use….

A

transport proteins (synthesized in the liver)

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19
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones: Most use transport proteins (synthesized in the liver)

Make the hormone temporarily ______

Retard the passage of smaller hormone molecules through the kidney filter therefore _______

A

water-soluble

reducing the amount lost in urine

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20
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones: Most use transport proteins (synthesized in the liver)

Provide a ready reserve of hormone in the bloodstream or free fraction which is:

A

Free fraction- 0.1-10% are not bound to a transport protein;

these diffuse from capillaries, bind to receptors immediately

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21
Q

transported in their free (unbound) form in blood

A

Water-soluble hormones

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22
Q

Control of Hormone Secretion

● Regulated by

A

Signals from nervous system
Ex: Nerve impulses to adrenal medullae regulate release of epinephrine

Chemical changes in the blood
Ex: Blood Ca2+ level regulates secretion of parathyroid hormone

Other hormones
Ex: Release of a hormone (ACTH) from the anterior
pituitary stimulates release of cortisol by adrenal cortex

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23
Q

Control of Hormone Secretion

● Regulated by

A

Signals from nervous system
Chemical changes in the blood
Other hormones

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24
Q

Reverses a change in the controlled condition

Hormone “A” secreted by anterior pituitary

Blood levels of hormone “A” increase

Sends signal to anterior pituitary to stop/slow production of Hormone “A”

A

Negative Feedback

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25
Q

Strengthens or reinforces the change in the controlled condition

EX:
Oxytocin causes uterine contractions

Uterine contractions cause oxytocin to be released

A

Positive Feedback

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26
Q

Types of Hormones

● Divided into three major groups based on chemical
structure

A

Proteins and Polypeptide hormones

Steroid hormones

Tyrosine derivative hormones

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27
Q

Types of hormones Divided into three major groups based on…

A

chemical structure (in this class)

Numerous other ways to classify hormones though
By solubility
By gland
By function

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28
Q

The majority of the hormones in the body fall into this

category

A

Proteins and Polypeptides

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29
Q

Proteins and Polypeptides are made from

A

the joining of three or more amino acids

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30
Q

100+ amino acids joined together

EX’s:
Human Growth Hormone
Prolactin

A

Protein

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31
Q

3-99 amino acids joined together

Ex’s:
Thyrotropin releasing hormone

A

Polypeptides

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32
Q

Are all water soluble

Can travel unbound in blood

Finds their receptors on the cell membrane

A

Proteins and Polypeptides

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33
Q

Refer to slide 28, 29, and 30 of the ppt

A

stellar

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34
Q

Cholesterol Hormones are known as….

A

steroid hormones

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35
Q

● Derived from cholesterol

● Very little concentration of these are stored

A

Steroid Hormones

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36
Q

____ are lipid-soluble

Have to be bound to transport proteins while in blood (because blood is water-based)

Can freely pass through cell membrane

Binds to receptors on the inside of the cell

A

Steroid hormones

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37
Q

Promotes development of male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics

A

Testosterone from testes

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38
Q

Promotes growth and development of female reproductive system, female breasts, female secondary sex characteristics

A

Estrogen

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39
Q

Helps to produce “uterine milk” that nourishes growing embryo, helps develop secretory apparatus of breast

A

Progesterone

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40
Q

ovary hormones

A

estrogen and progesterone

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41
Q

adrenal cortex hormones

A

cortisol and aldosterone

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42
Q

kidney hormone

A

calcitrol

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43
Q

● Derived from some form of tyrosine (amino acid)

Thyroid hormones
Triiodothyroinine (T3)
Thyroxine (T4)

Adrenal medullary hormones (catecholamines)
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine

Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)
Also known as dopamine

A

Tyrosine Derivative Hormones

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44
Q

Tyrosine Derivative Hormones

A

thyroid hormones

adrenal medullary hormones (catecholamines)

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45
Q

Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) also known as

A

dopamine

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46
Q

dopamine other name

A

Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)

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47
Q

Name all of the Tyrosine Hormones then look at page 36 of the PDF

A

Good little nerd

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48
Q

Controls the autonomic nervous system through neural and hormonal approaches

A

Hypothalamus

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49
Q

Location of Hypothalamus:

A

anterior and inferior to the thalamus

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50
Q

Hypothalamus Connected to the posterior pituitary gland by the….

A

infundibular stalk (axons)

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51
Q

There is a partial sheath that wraps up the infundibular stalk from the anterior pituitary gland called the

A

pars tuberalis

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52
Q

These two things entwined become the infundibulum

A

Pars tuberalis and the infundibular stalk

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53
Q

Every hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus is

transported to the pituitary gland where it will either __ or __?

A

Be stored (ADH, oxytocin)

Cause another hormone to be synthesized

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54
Q

Hypothalamus + Pituitary gland =

A

regulation of growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis

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55
Q

Hypothalamus Responds to signals from internal AND external environment like…

A

Temperature, hunger, satiety, blood pressure, levels of hormones, stress

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56
Q

Controls daily bodily rhythms such as melatonin secretion

from pineal gland, cortisol secretion, body temperature

A

Hypothalamus

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57
Q

Collects and combines information from the body and makes changes to correct any imbalances

A

Hypothalamus

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58
Q

Hypothalamic Hormones are Those that have action on the…

and those that get stored in the …

A

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Posterior Pituitary Gland

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59
Q

Anterior (APG) think

A

action

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60
Q

Posterior (PPG) think

A

storage

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61
Q

From hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland

Hormones produced in hypothalamus, placed into pituitary
portal system (capillaries), transported via portal system down to anterior pituitary gland

Once at anterior pituitary gland, these hormones….

A

CAUSE other hormones to be synthesized in the anterior pituitary

  • These hormones are metabolized once their message is received at the anterior pituitary
  • Made in small quantities, made only at the request of the body and its feedback systems
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62
Q

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones Function is to…

A

STIMULATE release of particular anterior pituitary hormones

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63
Q

Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones include:

A 
● GHRH: growth hormone-releasing hormone 
● TRH: thyrotropin-releasing hormone 
● CRH: corticotropin-releasing hormone 
● GnRH: gonadotropin-releasing hormone 
● PRH: prolactin-releasing hormone
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64
Q

Hypothalamic Inhibiting Hormones

● Function is to….

A

INHIBIT release of particular anterior pituitary hormones

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65
Q

● Hypothalamic inhibiting hormones include:

A

● GHIH: growth hormone-inhibiting hormone AKA somatostatin
● PIH: prolactin-inhibiting hormone
AKA dopamine

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66
Q

another name for somatostatin

A

GHIH or growth hormone-inhibiting hormone

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67
Q

another name for dopamine

A

PIH or prolactin-inhibiting hormone

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68
Q

Transport to Posterior Pituitary Gland is From hypothalamus to posterior pituitary gland. Where are these hormones produced vs stored?

A

Hormones produced in hypothalamus, but stored in the posterior pituitary gland

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69
Q

Posterior Pituitary Glan hormones Once produced, these hormones are sent via ____ from the hypothalamus down through the ______, into the posterior pituitary gland, where they are stored for future use

A

axons

infundibular stalk

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70
Q

Examples of Hormones synthesized in the hypothalamus but stored in the posterior pituitary gland

A

● Oxytocin

● Antidiuretic hormone (ADH/Vasopressin)

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71
Q

The Pituitary Gland (aka: _____)

A

hypophysis

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72
Q

The Pituitary Gland

● A small, pea-sized endocrine gland located within the

A

sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

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73
Q

sella turcica of the sphenoid bone holds the

A

pituitary gland

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74
Q

Posterior pituitary gland is connected to the hypothalamus

via the

A

infundibular stalk

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75
Q

Has two separate glandular portions, one intermediate

portion

A

pituitary gland

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76
Q

Anterior pituitary

AKA: _______

A

adenohypophysis or pars distalis

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77
Q

Posterior pituitary

AKA: ________

A

neurohypophysis or pars nervosa

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78
Q

neurohypophysis or pars nervosa aka…

A

Posterior pituitary

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79
Q

adenohypophysis or pars distalis aka….

A

Anterior pituitary

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80
Q

comprises ~ 75% of the total weight of the pituitary gland

A

The anterior segment of the pituitary gland\

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81
Q

The anterior segment of the pituitary gland is composed of:

A

Pars distalis: glandular tissue (the largest portion)

Pars tuberalis: partially covers the infundibulum (like a sheath)

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82
Q

when you see Pars tuberalis think….

A

Anterior pituitary gland

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83
Q

● The anterior pituitary gland produces ____ from 5 specific cell types within the gland

A

tropic hormones

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84
Q

● Once anterior pituitary hormones are synthesized they are….

A

released into general circulation (venous)

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85
Q

● Four of the tropic hormones released from the anterior

pituitary gland exert their effect on another endocrine gland… the exception is?

A

-The exception to this is human growth hormone as it acts directly on almost all tissues found in the body, not a particular gland

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86
Q

HGH (somatotropin) secreted by these cells

A

Somatotrophs

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87
Q

TSH (thyrotropin) secreted by these cells

A

Thyrotrophs

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88
Q

FSH and LH secreted by these cells

A

Gonadotrophs

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89
Q

PRL (prolactin) secreted by these cells

A

Lactotrophs

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90
Q

ACTH (corticotropin) secreted by these cells

A

Corticotrophs

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91
Q

MSH (melanocyte) secreted by these cells

A

Corticotrophs

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92
Q

Hormones made in the anterior pituitary

A

GOLF TAMPA - ADH and OXY

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93
Q

Also known as somatotropin

A

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

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94
Q

Most abundant anterior pituitary hormone

A

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

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95
Q

Secreted by somatotrophic cells (most abundant cell)

Usually secreted in bursts every few hours

A

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

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96
Q

Starts to decline production after adolescence

Found to be approximately 25% production after age of 70

A

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

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97
Q

Is produced and released in a pulsatile manner

Characteristic increase during the first two hours of deep sleep

A

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

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98
Q

increases during first TWO HOURS of DEEP SLEEP

A

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

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99
Q

Main function is to promote synthesis and secretion of

small protein hormones called Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF’s; also known as somatomedins)

A

Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

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100
Q

somatomedin also known as….

A

Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF’s; also known as somatomedins)

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101
Q

In response to hGH, cells in the liver, skeletal muscle, cartilage, bones synthesize and secrete _____

Enters bloodstream via the liver or may act locally as autocrines or paracrines

A

IGF’s

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102
Q

It is believed that all of the changes seen in the body are due to the presence of these IGF’s, not hGH directly
This means that…

A

someone can have a normal hGH level but if there is a deficiency in the production of IGF’s, they will have some abnormalities

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103
Q

IGF’s

Increases protein synthesis
-Increases uptake of amino acids into cells

Decreases protein catabolism
-Decreases breakdown of proteins by limiting use of amino acids for ATP production and instead uses free-fatty acids

Stimulates growth in childhood
-Especially of bone, and muscle

Enhances lipolysis (break down of adipose tissue)
- Releases free-fatty acids (FFA’s) into the bloodstream for use as a source of energy in cells rather than glucose
A

Tis True

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104
Q 
Increases protein synthesis
Decreases protein catabolism
Stimulates growth in childhood
Enhances lipolysis (break down of adipose tissue)
Influences carbohydrate metabolism
A

Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF’s; also known as somatomedins)

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105
Q

Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF’s; also known as somatomedins)

Influences carbohydrate metabolism by…

Decreasing glucose uptake into the cells (leaving it in the blood for neurons) & increase glycogenolysis

explain the decreasing glucose….

A

Decreases glucose uptake into cells (to an extent), leaving it in the bloodstream readily available for neurons to use (if needed)

With increased FFA’s, cells will use these as their main energy source

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106
Q

Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF’s; also known as somatomedins)

Influences carbohydrate metabolism by…

Decreasing glucose uptake into the cells (leaving it in the blood for neurons) & increase glycogenolysis

explain glycogenolysis

A

Also stimulates the liver to release glucose (glycogenolysis) into the blood if serum levels are low (hypoglycemia)

IGF’s attempt to keep glucose available for neurons at all times during states of hypoglycemia

While doing this, they mobilize glucose stores from liver to increase blood glucose levels

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107
Q

Insulin secreted in abundance in high blood glucose situations

IGF’s produced and secreted in abundance in low blood glucose situations and -This starts a chain reaction to release more glucose in blood stream from various methods

A

Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF’s; also known as somatomedins)

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108
Q

_____ stimulates GHRH secretion and inhibits GHIH secretion (hypothalamus) resulting in

A

Hypoglycemia

Anterior pituitary increases secretion of hGH resulting in increased IGF concentration

-Carbohydrate metabolism and liver glycogenolysis increase blood glucose

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109
Q

Hyperglycemia does the opposite of hypoglycemia because it Stimulates the hypothalamus to secrete

Reduced levels of hGH result which also reduces the IGF action… this causes?

A

GHIH

– plasma glucose levels reduce because the IGF’s are no longer working to keep integral glucose in the blood stream for neurons (there is enough already there)

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110
Q

Factors that stimulate hGH secretion: name all 9

come up with mnemonic

A

Hypoglycemia

Sympathetic nervous system stimulation (stress, strenuous exercise)

Deep sleep

Decreased serum fatty acids

Increased serum amino acids

Starvation/fasting or protein deficiency

Increased levels of:

  • Testosterone
  • Estrogen
  • Ghrelin – hormone secreted by stomach right before meals
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111
Q

Factors that inhibit hGH secretion: name all 9

A

Hyperglycemia

Increased serum fatty acids

Decreased serum amino acids

Emotional deprivation

Obesity

When plasma T3 and T4 levels are low (thyroid)

hGH (somatotropin) itself (negative feedback)

GHIH (somatostatin)

Aging

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112
Q

Describe hypoglycemia’s effect on the body followed by hyperglycemia’s… look at ppt slide 70 image

A

draw it out on the board to reinforce

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113
Q

ACTH stands for…

A

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

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114
Q

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone ) Secretion is stimulated by:

A

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from hypothalamus which is usually induced by:

Stress-related stimuli:

  • Low blood glucose
  • Physical trauma
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115
Q

ACTH controls production of ____, other glucocorticoids and certain _____ produced by
the cortex of adrenal glands

A

cortisol

androgens

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116
Q

(PRL) stands for

A

Prolactin

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117
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

Secretion is controlled by:

A

● Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)

● Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) (AKA
dopamine)

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118
Q

(PRH) stands for

A

● Prolactin-releasing hormone

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119
Q

Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) AKA….

A

dopamine

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120
Q

prolactin helps cause two things:

A

These together cause milk production in pregnant women

Ejection of milk is caused by oxytocin (posterior pituitary)

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121
Q

Low levels of estrogen and progesterone just prior to
menstruation inhibits secretion of ____ and
stimulates _____ secretion (this likely accounts for
breast tenderness at this time)

A

PIH (dopamine); prolactin

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122
Q

During the rest of the female cycle: as _____ secretion

increases, ______ secretion increases

A

estrogen increases

PIH (dopamine) increases

Prolactin secretion is reduced at this point

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123
Q

Prolactin Hypersecretion Is most commonly caused by a

A

prolactinoma (a benign pituitary adenoma)

Consider this diagnosis if a non-pregnant, non- breastfeeding female complains of a milky breast discharge

Consider this diagnosis in a male with erectile dysfunction with no obvious cause (older, HTN, obese) or a male with milky breast discharge

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124
Q

When you hear thyroid hormones in this class think….

A

T3 / T4

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125
Q

iodide issue not making

A

T3 / T4

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126
Q

peroxidase issue… not making iodide to iodine so no

A

T3 / T4

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127
Q

thyroglobulin (TGB) is…

A

the glue that binds the MIT, DIT, T3, and T4

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128
Q

resorption vs reabsorption is PROBABLY on the test

A

watch out for these key words and differentiate between on the exam

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129
Q

FSH

A

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

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130
Q

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) from the

hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete

A

FSH

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131
Q

___ initiates follicle production in women monthly

& Also stimulates ovarian follicular cells to produce estrogen

& stimulates production of sperm cells in me

A

FSH

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132
Q

FSH is inhibited by negative feedback, seen as

A

increased serum levels of estrogen (females)

Increased serum levels of testosterone (males)

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133
Q

LH

A

Luteinizing Hormone

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134
Q

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) from the

hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete _____

A

LH

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135
Q

What stimulates the AP to secrete LH?

A

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) from the

hypothalamus

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136
Q

What stimulates the AP to secrete FSH?

A

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) from the

hypothalamus

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137
Q

_____ triggers ovulation in women as well as formation of the corpus luteum and therefore the secretion of progesterone by the corpus luteum… also with FSH stimulates release of estrogen by follicular cells

A

LH

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138
Q

With FSH, LH triggers secretion of estrogen by ovarian

A

follicular cells

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139
Q

LH stimulates cells in the testes to produce and secrete

testosterone in male… T or F

A

True

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140
Q

● Collective name for group of peptide hormones produced in the skin, the anterior pituitary and other parts of the brain

● Dopamine (PIH) inhibits MSH release from anterior
pituitary only

A

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormones

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141
Q

● In humans, MSH is involved with:

  • Pigmentation of skin cells (i.e. increased melanin causing tanned skin) (This MSH is made locally in the skin)
  • Possible suppression of appetite
A

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormones

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142
Q

______ inhibits MSH release from anterior

pituitary only

A

Dopamine (PIH)

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143
Q

TSH

A

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

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144
Q

Release of _____ from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary

A

Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH)

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145
Q

TRH is inhibited by increased levels of ____ in the bloodstream which when reduced, causes a reduced amount of TSH to be produced in the anterior pituitary

A

T3 and T4; This reduction in TRH and subsequently TSH reduces the amount of T3/T4 to be made
(negative feedback loop)

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146
Q

Posterior Pituitary aka…

A

neurohypophysis

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147
Q

The ____ segment of the pituitary gland

comprises ~ 25% of the total weight of the gland…. doesn’t synthesize it stores and releases

A

posterior pituitary gland

148
Q

posterior pituitary gland is composed of neural tissue and these two particulars:

A

● Pars Nervosa- nerve tissues encompassing the “bulbar” part of the posterior pituitary

● Infundibular stalk- connection to the pituitary gland

149
Q

nerve tissues encompassing the “bulbar” part of the posterior pituitary (with axons storing oxytoxicin and ADH)

A

Pars Nervosa

150
Q

connection to the pituitary gland

A

Infundibular stalk

151
Q

The ____ pituitary does not synthesize
hormones but rather it stores and releases hormones sent to it by the hypothalamus

Which hormones are stored?

A

posterior

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) (also known as vasopressin)

Oxytocin

152
Q

Contains the axons and axon terminals of more than 10,000 hypothalamic neurosecretory cells

A

Posterior Pituitary

153
Q

produces oxytocin

A

paraventricular nucleus (in hypothalamus)

from picture not slides maybe not testable

154
Q

produces ADH

A

supraoptic nucleus (in hypothalamus)

from picture not slides maybe not testable

155
Q

● Produced in the hypothalamus, stored in the posterior pituitary gland

● “Against urination” – decreases urine production/excretion

A

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH; Vasopressin)

156
Q

● Normal urine output daily is 1-2 liters, without ADH this increases 10 FOLD!!! to 20 liters a day!!!! (FOOT STOMP)

-Alcohol inhibits release of ADH – “Breaking the seal” urinate more, end up dehydrated after drinking (FOOT STOMP)

A

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH; Vasopressin)

157
Q

Also causes vasoconstriction of arterioles (causing an increase in blood pressure) hence the alternative name vasopressin

A

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH; Vasopressin)

158
Q

Amount of ADH secreted varies with ___ and ___

A

blood osmotic pressure and blood volume

159
Q

High blood osmotic pressure stimulates ______ in the hypothalamus

A

osmoreceptors

160
Q

Osmoreceptors are a type of ____ that measure osmotic pressures; which measure the pressure solutes are causing ____

A

baroreceptor

inside the plasma

161
Q

Causes of high osmotic pressure

A

Dehydration
Hemorrhage
Diarrhea
Excessive sweating

162
Q

These osmoreceptors activate the production and release of ADH from ______ in hypothalamus

These same neurosecretory cells send a signal to the ______ to release the ADH it already has stored

ADH is released to find its target tissues

A

neurosecretory cells

posterior pituitary

163
Q 
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): 
Mechanism of action and regulation of secretion
1
2
3
4
5
6
A
  1. High blood osmotic pressure stimulates hypothalamic osmoreceptors
  2. Osmoreceptors activate the hypothalamic neurosecretory cells that synthesize and release ADH
  3. Nerve impulses liberate ADH from axon terminals in the PPG into the bloodstream
  4. Kidneys retain more water, which decreases urine output
  5. Sudoriferous (sweat) glands decrease water loss by perspiration from the skin
  6. Arterioles constrict, which increases BP
164
Q

IN what other ways is ADH secretion altered?

A 
● Pain, stress, trauma, anxiety 
● Drugs:
Morphine 
Tranquilizers 
Some anesthetics (hence post op monitor)
Nicotine
165
Q

During delivery of a child, stretching of the cervix stimulates release of oxytocin from posterior pituitary

This in turn enhances the contraction of the uterus What type of action is this?

A

positive feedback

166
Q

After delivery of the child, _____ stimulates milk ejection or “let-down” from the mammary glands…. which is increased by?

A

Oxytocin

Increased by the suckling stimulus of the newborn

167
Q

Very little is known about the purpose of oxytocin in males and non-pregnant females, but is it believed to be linked to….

A

Believed (and being researched) to be involved with the ability to emotionally/socially bond with others

168
Q

Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

_______ from the hypothalamus stimulates Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) secretion from the anterior pituitary gland

A

Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

169
Q

Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

Thyroid hormone synthesis/secretion occurs within the thyroid gland in the presence of

A

TSH: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

170
Q

Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

_____ feedback causes the hypothalamus to stop or slow production of TRH which then causes the anterior pituitary to stop or slow release of

A

Negative

TSH

171
Q

Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

Anything that increases cellular energy demand causes an increase in T3/T4 production: T or F?

172
Q

Control of Thyroid Hormone Secretion:

Cold environment, hypoglycemia, high altitude, pregnancy all do what to T3/T4 production?

A

INCREASE…. metabolic demand or cellular energy demand increased requiring more T3/T4

173
Q

A butterfly shaped gland weighing approximately 30 grams (is the largest of the “pure” endocrine glands)

A

Thyroid Gland (Macroscopic)

174
Q

(is the largest of the “pure” endocrine glands)

A

Thyroid Gland (Macroscopic)

175
Q

Lateral lobes (wings) on each side of the trachea projecting upward to just below the larynx

A

Thyroid Gland (Macroscopic)

176
Q

Thyroid Gland (Macroscopic)

Lobes connected by an ____ located anterior to the trachea

177
Q

Approximately 50% of thyroid glands have a ____ in the center extending superior from the isthmus, this is called the ____

A

third lobe

pyramidal lobe

178
Q

_____ are the functional units of the thyroid

179
Q

A follicle is a sphere with its wall consisting of follicular cells: THE INSIDE IS CALLED?

A

This inside of this unit is called the colloid

180
Q

_____ cells reside in between follicles and produce _____?

A

Parafollicular; calcitonin

181
Q

No direct action on thyroid

Made in the thyroid but not considered to be a “thyroid hormone”?

A

calcitonin produced by Parafollicular cells

182
Q
  • The inactive form of thyroid hormone

- Much more abundant, but less potent

A

Tetraiodothyronine (Thyroxine, T4)

183
Q
  • The active form of thyroid hormone

- Much more potent, less abundant

A

Triiodothyronine (T3)

184
Q

(not a “thyroid hormone” only made in the thyroid)

Made in small quantities by parafollicular cells, helps to regulate calcium levels of the blood

A

Calcitonin

185
Q

What are the hormones produced in the Thyroid gland?

A

T3
T4
Calcitonin

186
Q

Synthesis of T3 and T4: describe or draw the entire process:

A

● Follicular cells pull iodide ions from the blood stream
● Follicular cells are also producing thyroglobulin (TGB) (glycoprotein-carbon chain of many amino acids)
-TGB is produced in endoplasmic reticulum
-Packaged in the Golgi apparatus
-Released by exocytosis into the lumen (colloid)

● Iodide requires oxidation to make iodine (the useable form for thyroid hormone synthesis)
-Perioxidase oxidizes the iodide into iodine (I2)

● At this point there is now TGB and iodine (I2) roaming in the colloid

● Simultaneously TGB and iodine begin to react with each other forming bonds (at the tyrosine portions of TGB)

  • One iodine to one tyrosine = monoiodotyrosine (MIT)
  • Two iodines to one tyrosine = diiodotyrosine (DIT)

●These MIT and DIT molecules continue to form bonds to one another

  • MIT + DIT = T3 (3 iodine molecules)
  • DIT + DIT = T4 (4 iodine molecules)
187
Q

Describe and or draw the Secretion of T3 and T4

A

Secretion of T3 and T4
● The colloid is then pulled back into the follicular cells by pinocytosis
-This colloid contains the T3 and T4

● Once back in the follicular cell, this colloid is engulfed by a lysosome which digests the TGB and cleaves off the T3 and
T4

● This T3 and T4 is sent out of the cell, into the interstitial space, into the bloodstream
-Because they are weak in terms of water solubility, more than 99% of both T3 and T4 are then bound to transport proteins (thyroxine- binding globulin; TBG) in the blood stream

● They are then sent to their target cells

188
Q

** TGB and TBG are two different things***

T or F? What are they?

A

True

● TGB – Thyroglobulin
-This is the “glue” binding the MIT, DIT, T3, T4

● TBG – Thyroxine Binding Globulin
-This is the transport protein found in the blood stream that carries the T3/T4 to their target cells after synthesis of them is complete

189
Q

This is the “glue” binding the MIT, DIT, T3, T4

A

● TGB – Thyroglobulin

190
Q

This is the transport protein found in the blood stream that carries the T3/T4 to their target cells after synthesis of them is complete

A

● TBG – Thyroxine Binding Globulin

191
Q

Actions of Thyroid Hormones (T3/T4)

● Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR)

  • BMR is the rate of _____ consumption under normal conditions
  • When increased, BMR causes metabolism of ____?

● Stimulates synthesis of additional __ pumps

  • This causes increased ___ production and consumption by the constant turnover of the Na+ and K+
  • These reactions release heat as a byproduct This heat helps to raise and maintain the body temperature
A

● oxygen

carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids

● Na+/K+

ATP

192
Q

What are the Actions of Thyroid Hormones (T3/T4)?

A
  1. Increase BMR
  2. Stimulate synthesis of Na/K pumps
  3. Helps to regulate metabolism
  4. Can enhance actions of some catecholamines
  5. Works with hGH and insulin to accelerate body growth
193
Q

Actions of Thyroid Hormones (T3/T4)

● Helps to regulate the metabolism
-Stimulates ___ synthesis

  • Increases use of glucose and fatty acid for __
  • Increases ___ and enhances cholesterol excretion

● Can enhance actions of some catecholamines I.e. __ and ___

-T3 and T4 upregulate ____ receptors in the presence of these substances

–The up-regulation can explain why hyperthyroid patients experience….?

A

● protein

ATP production

lipolysis

● Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

beta adrenergic

increased heart rates, and blood pressure

194
Q

Actions of Thyroid Hormones T3/T4

● Works with hGH and insulin to accelerate what? in which two systems mainly?

Deficiency of T3/T4 in fetal growth, infancy or childhood causes what?

A

body growth; Nervous and skeletal systems mainly

severe mental retardation and stunted bone growth

195
Q

____cells reside outside of the follicular cells but still within the thyroid

A

Parafollicular

196
Q

Parafollicular Cells Synthesizes and secretes ?

A

calcitonin (calci-tone-it-down)

197
Q

(calci-tone-it-down)

A

calcitonin

198
Q

High levels of serum Ca2+ and HPO42 stimulate secretion of?

A

calcitonin

199
Q

Low levels of serum Ca2+ and HPO42 inhibit secretion?

A

calcitonin

200
Q

The process of using/losing a substance

Taking flour off the shelf for use (it’s yours, you are just now using it)

A

Resorption

201
Q

Example: The breakdown of bone by osteoclasts in order to increase plasma Ca2+

A

Resorption

202
Q

The process of gaining something (whether for the first time or again)

Using some of the flour, and then putting the unused portion back on the shelf

A

Absorption/Reabsorption

203
Q

Example: Osteoblasts absorbing/reabsorbing the Ca2+ from blood to build bone matrix

A

Absorption/Reabsorption

204
Q

** Osteoclasts crush (break down), Osteoblasts build**

205
Q

The cells that break down bone and release it into blood circulation

A

osteoclasts (inhibited by calcitonin)

206
Q

The cells that reabsorb calcium and store it in bone matrix

A

osteoblasts (Increased by calcitonin)

207
Q

Closes certain channels from absorbing calcium from food you eat

A

calcium absorption in the intestines (Decreased by calcitonin)

208
Q

Prevents cells in distal convoluted tubule from reabsorbing more calcium

A

calcium loss in the urine (increased by calcitonin)

209
Q

Prevents cells in distal convoluted tubule from reabsorbing more calcium

A

calcium loss in the urine (increased by calcitonin)

210
Q

Parathyroid GLANDS located ON the

A

thyroid gland

211
Q

Four small glands attached to the posterior surface

of the thyroid gland

A

Parathyroid Glands (As if they were stuck onto it, not part of it)

212
Q

______ are the functional component of the Parathyroid gland

A

Principal cells (AKA Chief cells)

213
Q

These secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)….

A

Principal cells (AKA Chief cells)

214
Q

High levels of serum Ca2+ inhibit secretion of?

A

Principal cells (AKA Chief cells) secretion of PTH

215
Q

Low levels of serum Ca2+ stimulate secretion

A

Principal cells (AKA Chief cells) secretion of PTH

216
Q

Where are the parathyroid glands located on the thyroid gland?

A

Four small glands on the POSTERIOR… two superior and two inferior

217
Q

Increases osteoclasts
-The cells that break down bone and release it into blood circulation

Inhibits osteoblasts
-The cells that reabsorb calcium and store it in bone matrix

Increases calcium absorption in the intestines
-Opens certain channels that cause absorption of calcium from food you eat

Decreases calcium loss in the urine
-Stimulates the cells in distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb more calcium

A

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) from parathyroid gland

218
Q

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) from parathyroid gland causes the following:

A

Increases osteoclasts
Inhibits osteoblasts
Increases calcium absorption in the intestines
Decreases calcium loss in the urine

EXPLAINED FURTHER BELOW
Increases osteoclasts
-The cells that break down bone and release it into blood circulation

Inhibits osteoblasts
-The cells that reabsorb calcium and store it in bone matrix

Increases calcium absorption in the intestines
-Opens certain channels that cause absorption of calcium from food you eat

Decreases calcium loss in the urine
-Stimulates the cells in distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb more calcium

219
Q

Pair of flattened, pyramidal-shaped glands located

superior and adjacent to the kidneys (retroperitoneal)

A

Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands

220
Q

Each usually measures 3-5cm in height by 2-3cm in width and usually less 1cm thick

A

Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands

221
Q

Each adrenal gland has two distinct section:

A

Adrenal cortex- large and peripherally located

Adrenal medulla- smaller and centrally located

222
Q

Adrenal gland is covered by? and is highly ___?

A

tissue capsule

Highly vascularized

223
Q

describe the gross transverse cross section of the adrenal gland I.e. larger layers from superficial to deep

A

capsule, cortex, medulla

224
Q

describe the microscopic section of the adrenal gland from superficial to deep

A 
Capsule
Zona Glomerulosa
Zona Fasciculata
Zona Reticularis
Medulla
225
Q

Hypothalamus releases _______ which targets the anterior pituitary (for control of adrenal cortex hormone section)

A

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

226
Q

Anterior pituitary produces and releases ____ in response to CRH, which has the following. actions on the adrenal cortex: Zona Glomerulus, Fasciculata, Reticularis

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Zona Glomerulus – mineralcorticoids are produced and secreted
Zona Fasciculata – glucocorticoids are produced and secreted
Zona reticularis – certain androgens are produced and secreted

227
Q

Secretes mineralocorticoids
-Aldosterone (most notable)

Affects mineral homeostasis in the body

  • Promotes the reabsorption of sodium in the kidneys
  • —-Brings water with the sodium (helps to increase blood volume)
  • Promotes the loss of (secretion, excretion) of
  • —-Potassium (K+) into the urine
  • —-Hydrogen (H+) into the urine
A

Zona Glomerulosa – outer zone

228
Q

Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by both:

A
  • Elevated serum potassium and hydrogen levels
  • Low blood pressure
  • —-Via the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
229
Q

Aldosterone inhibited by both:

A
  • Low serum levels of potassium and hydrogen

- High blood pressure

230
Q

** This is not an all or nothing response, it’s not on or off. There is fluctuation of aldosterone levels in the body constantly**

A

SWEET BEAT

231
Q

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

Blood pressure is low this occurs:

A

This is recognized by the kidneys as well by reduced pressure coming into them

—Kidneys secrete renin in response to this

232
Q

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

Circulating renin causes the conversion of ____ (normal constituent of blood) into ______

A

angiotensinogen into angiotensin-I

233
Q

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

_____ is made by the liver and dumped into circulation regularly

A

Angiotensinogen

234
Q

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

Angiotensin-I circulates into the lung vasculature where it encounters _____

A

angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)

235
Q

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

ACE splits angiotensin-I now making ______

Angiotensin-II then circulates causing numerous things to occur

A

angiotensin-II

236
Q

Angiotensin-II increases blood pressure by numerous

pathways….. which ones?

A

Stimulates the production of aldosterone

Causes increase in sympathetic activity

Causes arteriolar vasoconstriction

Causes release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

237
Q

Secretes glucocorticoids

  • —-Cortisol (95%)
  • —-Corticosterone
  • —-Cortisone
A

Zona Fasciculata – middle zone

238
Q

Affects numerous biological functions

  • —-Glucose levels
  • —-Helps to regulate metabolism
  • —-Inflammatory response
  • —-Immune system
  • —-Blood pressure
  • —-Nervous system
  • —-Sleeping
A

Zona Fasciculata – middle zone

239
Q

____ help the body regain homeostasis after a “Stress” event

A

Glucorticoids

–Very effective if stressor is removed

–Over-reaction occurs if stressor not removed

240
Q

Function of glucocorticoids? Name all Six

A 
Stimulates protein catabolism
Stimulates gluconeogenesis
Stimulates lipolysis
Suppression of immune response
Acts as an anti-inflammatory
Inhibition of bone formation
241
Q

WHat is the majority of the pars distalis made up of?

A

Cells that create HGH or somatotropin. So it’s made of SOMATOTROPHIC cells

242
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones made in the Hypothalamus

A 
TRH
CRH
GHRH
GHIH
GRH

What about PIH and PRH? Dopamine is a Tyrosine Derivative Hormone!

243
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in the thyroid

A

Calcitonin

244
Q

promotes deposition of calcium into bones; decreases serum calcium levels

A

Calcitonin (Protein / Polypeptide )

245
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in the Pancreas

A

Glucagon

Insulin

246
Q

Increases synthesis and secretion of glucose from the liver

A

Glucagon (Protein / Polypeptide )

247
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Promotes entry into cells; helps to control carbohydrate metabolism

248
Q

Hormones created in the Parathyroid glands

A

PTH (Protein / Polypeptide )

249
Q

Increase calcium absorption by the gut and the kidneys; breaks down bone matrix to in order to increase serum calcium levels

A

PTH (Protein / Polypeptide )

250
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in the Placenta

A

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Hormone (HCG)

Human somatomammatropin

251
Q

Promotes growth of the corpus luteum and therefore the growth of progesterone… also the secretion of estrogen by follicular cells

A

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin Hormone (HCG) (Protein / Polypeptide )

252
Q

Promotes development of some fetal tissues as well as enlargement of mothers breasts

A

Human somatomammatropin (Protein / Polypeptide )

253
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in the kidneys

A

Renin

Erythropoietin (EPO)

254
Q

catalyzes conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin (acts an enzyme)

255
Q

Increases erythrocyte production

A

Erythropoietin (EPO) (Protein / Polypeptide )

256
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in the Heart

A

Atrial-natiuretic peptide hormone (ANP)

257
Q

increases sodium excretion by the kidneys, reduce blood pressure

A

Atrial-natiuretic peptide hormone (ANP) (Protein / Polypeptide )

258
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in the stomach

259
Q

stimulates hydrogen chloride secretion by parietal cells to aid in digestion

A

gastrin (Protein / Polypeptide )

260
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in the small intestines

A

Secretin

Cholecystokinin

261
Q

Stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate

A

Secretin (Protein / Polypeptide )

262
Q

Stimulates gall bladder contraction and release of pancreatic enzymes

A

Cholecystokinin

263
Q

Protein / Polypeptide Hormones created in adipocytes

264
Q

inhitibits appetite, stimulates thermogenesis

A

Leptin (Protein / Polypeptide )

265
Q

Where in the body are all of the steroid hormones created (listed in this class at least)?

A

Kidneys, Adrenal Cortex (zona glomerulosa), Testes, Ovaries

266
Q

Kidneys, Adrenal Cortex (zona glomerulosa), Testes, Ovaries… List the steroid hormones made in each

A

Kidneys - Calcitriol (Inc intestinal absorption of calcium)

Adrenal Cortex (ZG) - Cortisol (protein, carb, & fat metabolism; inflammatory effects

Adrenal Cortex (ZG) - Aldosterone - (increases renal absorption, and potassium and hydrogen ion secretion)

Testes - Testosterone - (male development)

Ovaries - Estrogen (Growth & development of female reproductive system, female breasts, etc)

Ovaries - Progesterone (“uterine milk” nourished embryo, helps develop secretory apparatus of breasts)

267
Q

How do glucocorticoids Stimulate protein catabolism?

A

Essentially from all cells except the liver

These liberated amino acids travel to liver where they participate in gluconeogenesis

268
Q

Explain how a glucocorticoid Stimulates gluconeogenesis

A

Liver converts amino acids to glucose

269
Q

Explain how a glucocorticoid Stimulates lipolysis

A

Stimulates shift from carbohydrate catabolism to lipid catabolism

Liberates fatty acids also used in gluconeogenesis in the liver

270
Q

Explain how a glucocorticoid Suppression of immune response- presence of glucocorticoids cause

A

Marked decrease in number of eosinophils (type of WBC) as well as atrophy of lymphatic tissue

–Leads to a decreased number of lymphocytes and plasma cells

——These cells produce numerous anti-bodies

——With a reduced level of these cells, the body’s ability to fight infections is greatly reduced

271
Q

Explain how a glucocorticoid Acts as an anti-inflammatory

A

Inhibits synthesis of precursor to prostaglandins and leukotrienes

Inhibits production of interleukin-2 and proliferation of T-
lymphocytes

Inhibits release of histamine and serotonin from mast cells and platelets

272
Q

Explain how a glucocorticoid causes Inhibition of bone formation

A

Decreases Type I collagen (major component of bone matrix)

Decreases osteoblast activity

Decreases intestinal absorptions of calcium

273
Q

What is the inner zone of the adrenal gland?

A

Zona Reticularis - inner zone

274
Q

What is made in the Zona Reticularis - inner zone?

A

Secretes small amounts of weak androgens:

  • Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
  • Androstenedione
  • Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
275
Q

Converted in testes to testosterone for males

Portion converted to estrogen in women (various tissues)

A

weak androgens secreted from Zona Reticularis

276
Q

Weak androgenic effect on its own
Precursor to numerous hormones

Androstenedione, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), estrogen

A

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

277
Q

\Weak androgenic effect on its own

Can be converted to Testosterone or estrone (precursor to estradiol)

A

Androstenedione

278
Q

More potent androgen than testosterone

Made from conversion of testosterone

Is active in tissues where testosterone is not

A

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

279
Q

Middle region of the adrenal gland

A

The Adrenal Medulla

280
Q

functional unit of the adrenal medulla

A

Chromaffin Cell

281
Q

Chromaffin Cell Synthesizes and secretes:

A

catecholamines
Epinephrine (more potent, more abundant)
Norepinephrine (precursor to epinephrine)

282
Q

These cells are considered modified sympathetic ganglion of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A

Chromaffin Cell

283
Q

Stimulation of sympathetic nervous system sends signal down through splanchnic nerves

These nerves synapse at the chromaffin cells

Signals….

A

epi/norepi to be released

284
Q

Catecholamines intensify sympathetic responses

throughout the body

285
Q

Catecholamines do what to the body?

A

Increase heart rate, force of contraction, cardiac
output, blood pressure

Increases blood flow to heart, liver, skeletal muscles

Dilates airways to lung tissue

Causes liver and skeletal muscle to convert glycogen
into glucose

Vasodilation (lungs, brain, heart, skeletal muscle)

Vasoconstriction (GI, kidneys, skin)

286
Q

What is pheochromocytoma?

A

a tumor that’s usually benign of the chromaffin cells

causes a lot of sympathetic NS responses

287
Q

pancreas is 95% what?

288
Q

pancreas is 5% what?

289
Q

Islets of langerhans where?

A

exocrine acini

290
Q

raises blood glucose levels

291
Q

____ receptors in pancreas sense low blood glucose

A

glucose (to stimulate glucagon)

292
Q

Glucagon performs the following:

A

glycogenolysis (break down of liver glycogen)
Gluconeogenesis (liver uptake of AA’s to convert into glucose)
Lypolysis (breakdown of triglycerides into FFA’s and glycerol

293
Q

How is glucagon regulated?

A

negative feedback from serum glucose levels

294
Q

lowers blood glucose levels

295
Q

What are the 4 types of islet cells?

A

A - 20% secrete glucagon
B - 75% secrete insulin
D - 4% secrete somatostatin (GHIH)
F - (aka PP cell) - 1% secrete pancreatic polypeptide

296
Q

What is the exocrine acinus?

A

where the endocrine cells of the pancreatic islets are located (Islets of Langerhans)

297
Q

what is GDIP (aka GIP) and what triggers it?

A

GDIP = Glucose-Dependent Insulintropic Peptide aka Gastric Inhibitory Peptide whcih is triggered BY presence of food in the small intestine

298
Q

What does GDIP aka GIP trigger?

A

release of insulin from the pancreas

299
Q

what does insulin perform?

A

Facilitates glucose uptake into cells

Stimulates glycolysis (metabolism of glucose for ATP)

Stimulates glycogenesis (excess glucose into glycogen in liver)

Promotes triglyceride and protein synthesis

300
Q

how is insulin regulated?

A

negative feedback from serum glucose levels (decrease levels in hypoglycemia)

301
Q

explain how SOMATOSTATIN acts in paracrine manner

how about endocrine manner?

A

paracrine: stops release of insulin and glucagon
endocrine: inhibits release of hGH

302
Q

What does the following:

Inhibits somatostatin release
Inhibits gallbladder contraction
Inhibits secretion of bicarb and certain enzymes from pancreas
Appetite suppression potentially

A

Pancreatic polypeptide

303
Q

Pancreatic polypeptide

A

What does the following:

Inhibits somatostatin release
Inhibits gallbladder contraction
Inhibits secretion of bicarb and certain enzymes from pancreas
Appetite suppression potentially

304
Q

hypoglycemia inhibits release of insulin, increases release of Glucagon which…

acts on?

glucose then released by and then stimulates release of?

A

hypoglycemia inhibits release of insulin, increases release of Glucagon which…

acts on hepatocytes (liver cells)

hepatocytes which increases blood glucose and stimulates the release of insuliln

305
Q

Blood sugar immediately after a meal: Insulin

hyperglycemia does what?

A

inhibits glucagon (alpha cells)

stimulates release of insulin by Beta Cells

306
Q

Where does insulin act on the body?

A

glucose into cells
glycogenesis (conversion glucose into glycogen)
increase uptake of AA’s to increase protein synthesis
speeds up synthesis of FFA’s (lipogenesis)

307
Q

Glucagon is which cell

A

Alpha cells

308
Q

Insulin is which cell

A

Beta cells

309
Q

Ovaries synthesize and secrete

A

estrogen, progesterone, INHIBIN, and RELAXIN

310
Q

When do INHIBIN and RELAXIN get produced in large quantities?

A

when pregnancy occurs (otherwise negligible levels)

311
Q

INHIBIN inhibits what?

A

FSH to develop follicles

312
Q

RELAXIN does what?

A

relaxes cartilage of the pubic symphesis for baby passage & widens cervix (relaxes)

313
Q

testes produce what?

A

testosterone and inhibin

314
Q

inhibin in males testes does hat?

A

inhibits FSH so therefore INHIBIN will INHIBIT spermatogenesis (lower levels still reduce rate of spermatogenesis)

315
Q

what does the pineal gland secrete

316
Q

ANP and BNP (Atrial Natiuretic Peptide aka A-type and there is also B-type) what do they do?

A

when blood pressure stretches heart they decrease blood pressure

317
Q

Adipose tissue secretes what?

A

Leptin and Adiponectin

Leptin (satiety)
Adiponectin (reduce insulin resistance)

318
Q

Leptin from adipose tissue does what?

A

(satiety) or feeling of it

319
Q

Adiponectin from adipose tissue does what?

A

(reduce insulin resistance)

320
Q

skin releases what?

A

cholecalciferol (forms Vitamin D)

321
Q

Thymus does what with age?

A

larger and more active EARLY in LIFE, but over time it will ATROPHY

322
Q

Thymus hormones

A

Thymosin
Thymic humoral factor
Thymic factor
Thymopoietin

323
Q

Liver secretes what?

A

IGF-1
Angiotensinogen
Thrombopoietin
Hepcidin

324
Q

blocks release of iron into bloody fluids and produced by liver?

325
Q

GI tract hormones?

A

Gastrin
CCK (Cholecystokinin)
GDIP AKA GIP
Secretin

326
Q

Gastrin is secreted by

stimulated by?

Function?

A

G cells of the stomach

ingestion of protein, stomach distention & VAGAL STIMULATION***

Promotes H+ from gastric parietal cells
stimulates growth of gastric mucosa

327
Q

what is bone resorption?

A

using/ losing so osteoclasts will break down bone to increase serum calcium levels

328
Q

what is bone absorption/reabsorption?

A

osteoblasts are absorbing the calcium from the blood to build bone matrix

329
Q

resorption

A

using/losing

330
Q

reabsorption/absorption think

A

gaining something

331
Q

vagal stimulation helps G cell in stomach secrete

332
Q

secreted by I cells of the small intestines

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

333
Q

Stimulated by fatty meals w/ protein

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

334
Q

monoglycericdes and fatty acids along with

small peptides and amino acids stimulate

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK) from small intestine

335
Q

Function of Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A

Gallbladder contraction
slows gastric empyting
stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes
stimulates growth of exocrine pancreas and the gallbladder
**thought to provide SATIETY (fullness)

336
Q

thought to provide SATIETY

A

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

337
Q

secreted by K cells of the small intestine

A

Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Peptide (AKA Gastric Inhibitory Pepetide) GDIP AKA GIP

338
Q

stimulated by presence of these in luminal:

Glucose (carbs)
Fatty Acids (Fats)
Amino Acids (Proteins)
A

Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Peptide (AKA Gastric Inhibitory Pepetide) GDIP AKA GIP

339
Q

Function of: Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Peptide (AKA Gastric Inhibitory Pepetide) GDIP AKA GIP

A

Stimulates release of insulin

Inhibits H+ ion secretion by gastric mucosa

340
Q

secreted by S cells of the small intestine

341
Q

stimulated by ph < 4.5 in luminal contents

342
Q

Function of secretin

A

pancreatic bicarb
biliary bicarb (gall baldder)
inhibit effects of gastrin

343
Q

secretin inhibits

344
Q

found in all cells of body EXCEPT RBC’s

A

eicosanoids (act locally i.e. paracrine or autocrine)

345
Q

two major types of eicosanoids

A

Prostaglandins (PG’s)

Luekotrienes (LT’s)

346
Q

stimulates chemotaxis of WBC’s and mediates inflammation

A

Leukotrienes (LT’s)

347
Q

in any tissue that has mast cells and in platelets

348
Q

physical trauma to cells containing it and

immune response to allergens causes their release

349
Q

major problem caused function of histamine?

A

contraction of smooth muscle in lungs creating problems breathing as well as dilation of blood vessels in general that lower BP
(also stimulates gastric acid secretion)

350
Q

synthesized by cells in the INTESTINES, brain, CNS

351
Q

estimated that 90% of this is made in the intestines

352
Q

“good” stress

353
Q

eustress

A

good stress

354
Q

harmful stress

355
Q

the bodies attempt to counteract all stress

A

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

356
Q

what controls the bodies attempt to stress

A

hypothalamus

357
Q

What are the three stages of the stress response?

A

Alarm Stage
Resistance Reaction
Exhaustion Response

358
Q

What happens in the alarm stage of GAS stress response

A

release of glucocorticoids (cortisol)

  • decreases lymphocytes and eosinophils (impair of immune response)
  • increase of SNS
359
Q

What happens in the Resistance Reaction stage of GAS stress response?

A

normally occurs and is the “recovery” phase

  • Glucocorticoids decline
  • Immune system repenishes
  • decrease of SNS
  • Parasympathetic stimulated PNS
360
Q

What happens in the Exhaustion Response stage?

A

the stressor was not removed or resistance reaction phase was not sufficient, so body goes to the exhaustion response phase

body cannot “cope” with stress
prolonged cortisol
prolonged SNS

mental and physical illnesses
Fatigue, depression, anxiety
stomach ulcers, bowel changes

361
Q

Aging endocrine

hGH production decreases (atrophy)

T3/T4 production reduced due to…

A

worn out thyroid
causes reduction in metabolism (more fat)
hypothyroidism
ALTHOUGH TRH/TSH increases as we age (no negative feedback loop)

362
Q

worn out atrophied thyroid decreases metabolism

A

ALTHOUGH TRH/TSH increases as we age (no negative feedback loop)

363
Q

increased PTH levels as we age

A

calcitrol and calcitonin levels reduced also leading to bone injury

364
Q

adrenal cortex becomes fibrous as we age leading to….

A

decreased cortisol and aldosterone release

**Although…. MEDULLA is unaffected

365
Q

aging and the pancreas causes

A

insulin released more slowly (if at all) and glucose sensitivity decreases (due to oversuse)

so it causes….
HYPERGLYCEMIA

366
Q

Ovaries and Testes decrease in size, but differ in what they do as we age

A

Ovaries STOP RESPONDING to gonadotrophins leading to decrease ESTROGEN leading to osteoporosis, hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis

Testes decrease size but still produce testosterone in viable levels
-usually same # of sperm just lack quality

367
Q

All the cells or hormones that provide satiety or fullness?

A

CKK & Leptin

AP II (7 decks)

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