Exam Flashcards
1
Q
How did scientific research in roentgenography shape medicine in the 19/20th centuries? Who was responsible for this progress?
A
- Karl Roentgen discovered x-rays and x-ray photography. He incorporated these into medicine with the first x-rays used in 1896
1
Q
Who was Gerhard Domagk and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- He investigated azo dyes as antibacterials. - Found red dye, Prontosil, cured mice injected with lethal numbers of streptococci - Active component in drug was sulfanilamide, the first sulfa drug.
2
Q
How is traditional Chinese medicine similar / dissimilar to Greco-Roman medicine?
A
- Empedoclean elements are seen in Yin/Yang - Chinese rejected venisection - Actual body parts made up Greco-Roman anatomy, while anatomy in Chinese medicine was based on non-body parts, but perceived function of structure - Chinese medicine knew about pulse like Greek Herophilus (first person to study it)
2
Q
What is bonesetting?
A
- Historically were disreputable non-physicians that were family trained and kept/handed their skills down in families. Used manipulation to correct dislocations, fractures and painful joints. - Still once advertised himself as a lightning bonesetter.
3
Q
Who was Paul Ehrlich and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- He was a researcher with Sahachiro Hata who helped found modern chemotherapy. Developed Salvarsan (preparation 606) that was a specific treatment for 1909.
4
Q
Who is Simeon Taylor?
A
- Was the president of Des Moines Still College of Osteopathy in 1911. He was and MD and DO and broad osteopath. He trained under William Halsted in surgery at Johns Hopkins.
6
Q
What is Hellenistic medicine? What is the role of ancient Alexandria in medical education, research and what were the contributions by Erasistratus and Herophilus?
A
- After death of Alexander, generals known as Hellenes divided world into kingdoms. Alexandria (Egypt) because a center for education, including site of the Alexandria medical school founded by Herophilus/Erasistratus (Greeks) around 330-260 BCE. - Herophilus dissected human cadavers, described and named internal organ, discovered the duodenum and prostate and dissected brain and nerves. - Erisastratus called the body a machine (used by AT Still), dissected cadavers, described valves of hear, differentiated sensory and motor nerves, believed brain to be seat of intelligence, concluded hear was not the center of sensation, but functioned as a pump, denied teleology (purposeful creation of things).
6
Q
Who was credited with the first public use of anesthesia? Was this the first time it was used?
A
- William Morton was publicly credited for first successful use of anesthesia at Mass Gen in 1846. Crawford Long first used it publicly in 1842, but was not credited as it was not reported.
7
Q
Who was Imhotep? How did he add to Western medical traditions?
A
- Ancestor of modern physicians (first known healer whose name we know of) from ~ 2700 BCE, physician to Pharaoh
8
Q
Who is the father of pharmacology?
A
- Paracelsus
8
Q
Who was Francis Bacon and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- English lawyer, scientist and legislator. - He was minister to queen and king - While in public office, he was convicted on charges of corruption and fined. As a result, he was ineligible for office and dedicated the remainder of his life to study. - Developed inductive reasoning rather than Aristotle’s deductive reasoning. - Result of his work is scientific method.
8
Q
Who made advancements and refined EKG?
A
- Willem Einthoven
8
Q
When and where was AT Still born?
A
- Born in 1828 near Jonesville, VA
9
Q
Explains the origins/roots/traditions of Islamic Medicine.
A
- Islamic medicine, like other regions, had it roots in folk medicine that had beliefs in animism (everything has spirit), amulets, charms, incantations, etc. - Health / illness was attributed to spirits, ie. jinn and evil eye - Many practices from Egypt, Byzantium, Europe and India, such as bloodletting, cupping, cautery and leeching were practiced. - Complex pharmacopeia was developed for use during this time - Region faced similar sanitary proplems, nutritional issues and diseases seen in Europe - Central tenet to Islam is that of human well-being; duty is to take care of body and spirit - Prophet Muhammad provided guidelines for achieving/maintaining health, eg. Washing, cleanliness, sensible eating, proper hygiene etc. - In the 7th/8th centuries, Islam was formalized, traditional healing practices were eliminated, eg. Animism, Jinn etc. - Idea of “learned medicine” arose in 9th century through translation of Greek medical texts and establishment of Bayt al-Hikma under Johannitius - Thought by Islamic traditionalist that medicine is foreign to Islam (Devil is physician etc.) - Madrasas (schools where religious learning took place) developed medical curricula - Galenistic / Hippocratic medicine was practiced under scientists/physicians: Johannitius, Rhazes, Avicenna and Maimonides
9
Q
Who was Werner Forssman and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- He demonstrated safe cardiac cartheterization on himself in 1929, which lead to anatomic demonstration of coronary arteries and real-time physiologic recordings of cardiac function
10
Q
Who is Asclepius? Explain the rise of his followers and their contributions to Western medical traditions?
A
- Asclepius (from ~600 BCE) is the son of Apollo and a Greek warrior in the Iliad, known as a blameless physician. He is known as god of healing. His rod, entwined by serpent, symbolizes medicine / health care today. Asclepiads are the cults/families/clans are the healers that claimed ancestry to Asclepius. Hippocrates was born into an asclepiad around 500 BCE. His Oath may actually be a pledge of loyalty to Asclepius/cult.
10
Q
Who was Robert Boyle and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- Was a natural philospher who refined many ideas of Paracelsus, Bacon and Descartes, establishing a paradigm for empiric research. - He argued against traditional elements of various systems (including empedoclean). - He showed that air was necessary for combustion, life and sound. Was interested in blood and its function.
11
Q
Who were William and John Hunter and what were their contributions to medicine?
A
- William Hunter was a Scottish anatomist, physician and obstetrician in London who studied in Edinburgh - He taught privately in London on dissecting and operative procedures. Was also physician to Queen. - With his brother, John, built a famous anatomy theater in London comprising thousands of specimens for hundreds of species. - Wrote famously about the anatomy of the gravid uterus - John Hunter was a Scottish anatomist and surgeon who initially worked alongside is brother teaching anatomy in London - He was a very famous bodysnatcher. - He was an energetic researcher and thinker and contributed much to medicine, including: study of inflammation, work on GSWs, study of venereal diseases, absorption of fat by lacteals, anatomical development of a child, separation of materal / fetal blood supplies and role of lymphatic system.
11
Q
Who was Johannes Muller?
A
- He is considered one of the father’s of modern anatomy. He began the process of separating physiology and anatomy and called for physiology based on chemistry and physics
12
Q
What does Ayurveda mean?
A
- knowledge of long life
12
Q
Who was Rudolf Virchow?
A
- He ended the idea of humoral physiology and stated the cell was the center of pathologic processes.
12
Q
Who was Karl Roentgen?
A
- Karl Roentgen discovered x-rays and x-ray photography. He incorporated these into medicine with the first x-rays used in 1896.
13
Q
Who was Thomas Sydenham and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- considered English Hippocrates - studied at Oxford Uni - emphasized bedside medicine and personal observation - believed diseases were specific entities, as opposed to symptoms being diseases
13
Q
Who was the first DO?
A
- William Smith
14
Q
Describe how the rise of Christianity affected medical practices.
A
- Christianity became the official Roman religion in 313 CE (by edict) - It emphasized the soul and not the body - Manual medicine/healing became more common - Certain diseases were again associated with “God’s punishment” as they were during antiquity – Egyptians and Greeks — sin and sickness = similar states - Church’s charitable missions led to founding of imformal “hospitals” that were derived from poorhouses, hostels and hospices. These were known as “nosokomeia.” - In the late middle ages, regulation of medicine began by the Church. Effort began to restrict monks from becoming physicians for pay and desserting church - Dissection frowned upon, only executed criminals were dissected - Shrines for spiritual healing arose
14
Q
What is the Liber Ysagogarum?
A
- Medical text written by Johannitius that is part of the Articella and was used in European medieval medical practice.
15
Q
Explain changes that were occurring during the “Enlightment” that contributed to advances in medicine.
A
- The 18th century saw vast advances that advanced knowledge and reformed society through: - Use of science and intellect over superstition, romanticism and tradition - Vast dissemination of knowledge through printing and travel - Physicians becoming true scientists
15
Q
What is eclecticism?
A
- Is a medical practice that made use of botanical remedies along with other substances and physical therapy practices.
15
Q
Who were the Littlejohn brothers?
A
- They were highly trained PhDs and MDs who were the earliest faculty members of ASO bringing regular science and medicine to ASO. They were broad osteopaths. After ASO, they founded the American College of Osteopathy and Surgery.
16
Q
Who was responsible for changing clinical practice during the 17th century?
A
- Thomas Sydenham emphasized bedside medicine and personal observation - Herman Boerhaave popularized bedside teaching and was founder of academic teaching hospitals, using medical cases to teach students. Also used thermometer during pt assessment.
17
Q
What diseases were early Ayurvedic practioners aware of?
A
- They were aware of up to 1200 diseases including “fevers”, TB, smallpox, etc.
18
Q
What is the Kitab al-Qanun?
A
- It is a medical text written by Avicenna in the early 11th century. It is a compilation of Hippocrates, Galen and other revered medical scholars. This became the authority on medicine and is still in use. Book discusses contagion and sexually transmitted diseases, proposes microorganisms, standard for drug evaluation.
19
Q
What is the Bayt al-Hikma?
A
- Referred to as the House of Wisdom, is an early university where medical teachings occurred during 9th century.
19
Q
Explain the societal forces that lead to the Renaissance.
A
- The Renaissance is a long, complex period of the “rebirth” of art, science and medicine from 1300 to 1650. - Iberia and Andalusia is reconquested, previously occupied by Arabs. As a result, medical literature is more readily available in Europe - Sociopolitics changes under influence of city-states and Medici family - Bubonic plague decimates ~ 25 % of Europe’s population - Religious art is commissioned, humanistic views are popular - Renaissance begins in Florence: Medieval period which preceded this age, becomes known as “Dark Ages”; Roman and Greek manuscripts are collected and translated - Science, philosophy and medicine written by Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates and Galen are revived. - New ideas and inventions take place: politics, art, printing, gunpowder, compass etc. - Human dissection improved anatomic knowledge, medical illustration (Da Vinci, Michelangelo) and fine art
20
Q
Who arrived at the idea that the cell was the center of pathologic processes?
A
- Rudolf Virchow
20
Q
What is the difference between lesion and broad osteopaths?
A
- Lesion osteopaths are those who follow strict Still osteopathic principles with complete disregard for “regular medicine” and courses outside of anatomy and osteopathy. They repudiate adjunctive therapies, including drugs. - Broad osteopaths are those who incorporate Still osteopathic principles into “regular medicine.” They embrace all other modalities of regular medicine including pharmacology, drugs and surgery/OB.
21
Q
Who was Albrecht Von Haller and what were his contributions to medicine?
A
- Was a Swiss physician and chair of medicine, anatomy, botany and surgery at Uni of Gottingen. - Known as father of modern physiology, published volumes on Human Physiology
21
Q
Who are the sons of thunder?
A
- AT Still grew up in a strong Methodist family. His father was a circuit-rider and preacher for the Methodist church. These preachers were often called sons of thunder in that they preached hellfire and brimstone sermons.
22
Q
Who is Alcmaeon of Croton? Why is he important?
A
- He was said to have been a pupil of Pythagoras and first suggested health as an equilibrium between opposing body “humors”. Possibly did the first human dissection and described the optic nerve.
22
Q
Who were known as fathers of modern physiology?
A
- Albrecht Von Haller (18th century) - Johannes Muller (19th century)
23
Q
Who is Hunayn ibn Ishaq (aka Johannitius)? What are his contributions to healing / medicine?
A
- known as Johannitius in West, lived in 9th century - Arab Christian, theologian and physician - Served Caliph - Was in charge of Bayt al Hikma - Responsible for translating rare Greek medical texts into Arabic and Syriac - Wrote original works on anatomy, physiology and diseases of eye, including Liber Ysagogarum, which is incorporated into the Articella
24
Q
Explain the impact of the Vietnam era for osteopathic medicine.
A
- Vietnam war really change everything for DOs. It was an unpopular war, military doctors were severely need as physician enlistments were low. MDs and DOs were drafted. Military medicine became proving ground for abilities and education of osteopathic physicians. - War promoted civilian acceptance of DOs into allopathic hospitals and joint practices. Eventually allowed for DO acceptance into military residency programs. - Late 20th century saw postgraduate training extending to DO graduates by all allopathic institutions, allowing for certification in specialty for DOs by osteopathic or allopathic routes.
26
Q
What are the basic tenets/history of traditional Chinese medicine?
A
- Unity of nature, yin-yang dualism and balance, theory of 5 phases, theory of systematic correspondences - Based on Nei Ching (aka bible of traditional Chinese healing) written by Emperor and his physician and Mo Ching (another text) - Anatomy based on interplay between non-body parts - Emphasis on sphygmology (study of pulse): understood blood circulation, heart importance - Rejected venisection - Disease is imabalance of yin and yang - Treatment restores harmony and includes: curing spirit, dietary management, acupuncture, pharmacotherapy and treatment of bowel/viscera/blood and breath
28
Q
What are the similarities between traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine?
A
- rejection of venisection - Pharmacoagents used in Chinese medicine have been adopted into Western medicine: rhubarb (diarrhea), iron (anemia), Cannabis sativa (sedation), chaulmoogra oil (leprosy), Ephedra vulgaris (asthma), Rauwolfia (HTN), ginseng
30
Q
What are the four humors from Hippocratic medicine and what are they associated with?
A
- Yellow bile (dysentery, vomiting) - Phlegm (winter colds, epilepsy) - Blood (associated with life, plentiful in spring, need to expel if in excess) - Black bile (dried blood, possibly derived from yellow bile?)
30
Q
What is osteopathy vs osteopathic medicine?
A
- Osteopathy refers to the strict adherence and practice of osteopathic principles without drugs or adjunctive therapies, while osteopathic medicine combines the principles of osteopathy with all modalities of “regular medicine,” including pharmacology, drugs and surgery/OB.
30
Q
Who was SS Still?
A
- SS Still is the nephew of AT Still and founder of the SS Still College and Infirmary of Osteopathy in 1898.
31
Q
Who was Theodor Billroth?
A
- was a German surgeon who refined Listerian antisepsis. He began daily post-operative evaluation of temperatures (introduced previously by Boerhaave). He developed new abdominal operations including gastric resections and esophagectomies.
32
Q
Who was Alexander Fleming and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- He was a bacteriologist in London who accidentally discovered that Penicilium mold were destructive to Gram positive bacteria.
33
Q
Who demonstrated efficacy of vaccination?
A
- Edward Jenner
33
Q
Explain the transformation that occurred within the field of surgery during the 19th century? Who were the people responsible for these changes?
A
- Pain and sepsis no longer impeded surgery as a result of major advances in antisepsis and anesthesia. Surgeries previously focused on abscesses, amputations, bone-setting, but now involved peritoneal cavity, which before was limited as outcomes were mostly unfavorable. By the 20th century, abdominal and bowel surgeries were common. The 19th century began the century of surgery. - Theodor Billroth was a German surgeon who refined Listerian antisepsis. He began daily post-operative evaluation of temperatures (introduced previously by Boerhaave). He developed new abdominal operations including gastric resections and esophagectomies. - William Halsted, an American surgeon, was a student of Billroth and disciple of Lister’s antisepsis method, began using rubber gloves in surgery. Idea arose as an idea to prevent one of the nurses (also his girlfriend) from getting a rash as a reaction to the carbolic acid. He is best known as a cancer surgeon (performed radical mastectomies). He trained many 20th century surgeons including Henry Cushing and SL Taylor (former president of DMU)
34
Q
Who was Empedocles and what did he contribute to Western medicine?
A
- He was a pre-socratic philosopher who postulated that all matter is composed of the elements: earth, air, fire, water; known as “roots.” These elements are present in the Hippocratic System (as macrocosms) and correspond to the “humors” of the microcosm.
34
Q
How did osteopathy become osteopathic medicine? How did academic standards change?
A
- Under guidance of William Smith and Littlejohn brothers who served as faculty members at ASO. - They wanted all medical science and surgery with the exception of material medica included in the ASO curriculum. - They discovered historical and scientific evidence for osteopathy while incorporating regular sciences into ASO - Littlejohns later founded the American College of Osteopathy and Surgery in Chicago, becoming leaders for broadening of osteopathic principle. - In Des Moines, SL Taylor, MD from NE, surgeon at Hopkins under Halsted, became president of Still College. He was leader in calling for broad osteopathy. - Journal of American Osteopathic Assn started in 1901 contained mostly anecdotal case histories with rare failures of manipulative therapy. Basic research started and AT Still Research Institue est in 1913, with west coast branch headed by Louisa Burns. She was the first full-time researcher into the osteopathic concept. - AOA followed their lead, mandating longer curricula (3 years), plus broader education and practice in 1904. Many schools closed or merged. - AOA mandated 4 year curriculum in 1916, excluding medica. - 1940 saw instituting of two years of college pre-admission, three years by 1950s. Majority of entering class had baccalaureate degrees by 1960. - Expansion of colleges in 1970s.
35
Q
Who is the inventor of the stethoscope?
A
- Rene Laennec
36
Q
Who is often called the First Heart Specialist?
A
- Jean Nicolas Corvisart
37
Q
Who was William Morton?
A
- Dentist and medical student who was credited with first successful public demonstration of anesthesia at Mass Gen in 1846.
37
Q
Who was Crawford Long?
A
- American physician was the first to use anesthesia publicly in 1842, but was unreported, so credit not given to him.
38
Q
Who was the American Hippocrates?
A
- Benjamin Rush
39
Q
Who was Ignaz Semmelweiss?
A
- Hungarian obstetrician noted puerperal / childbed fever was carried from patient to patient by whomever was delivering babies. Counseled washing of hands in chorine-water solution between deliveries and showed dramatic decline in fever
39
Q
What is Salvarsan?
A
- Specific treatment for syphilis prepared and developed by Paul Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata
41
Q
What is the Athenian plague?
A
- Pandemic that killed thousands of Greeks, possibly arrived from Egypt with exact cause unknown. May have affected birds/animals too. Symptoms: fever, thirst, rash, rapid death. Sounded like smallpox, but unknown.
42
Q
Who was Anton von Leeuwenhoek and what was his contribution to medicine?
A
- Was a Hollander who without scientific training, designed and built single-lens microscopes capable of 250 x zoom.
43
Q
Who was August Waller?
A
- He demonstrated the first human ECG in the 1880s. First tested on his dog, Jimmy.
43
Q
Explain the influence of Evolution on Still.
A
- First coined by Spencer, a British philosopher, who wrote a popular book on Darwin. Book popularizes ideas about cause and effect in disease, structure and function interrelationship and holistic workings of organisms. - Still embraces/discusses similar/same concepts in osteopathic principles.
44
Q
Who is Louisa Burns?
A
- She was a DO and the first full-time researcher into the osteopathic concept. She headed the west coast branch of the AT Still Research Institute.
