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Anatomy & Physiology 1 > Exam 2: Rest of integumentary system, skeletal system, joints > Flashcards

Exam 2: Rest of integumentary system, skeletal system, joints Flashcards

1
Q

What is the primary function of keratin and keratohyalin (protein)

A

provides strength to hair, skin, nails

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2
Q

what are the 2 types of keratin and where are they found

A
  1. soft: found in skin (as cornified cells), they desquamate (fall off)
  2. hard: found in fingernails & hair, do not desquamate
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3
Q

How is skin classified

A

Based on the structure of the epidermis

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4
Q

What are the 2 kinds of skin

A

thick skin:
contains all 5 of epidermal strata & stratum corneum has many layers; found in areas of pressure & friction (palms of hands, soles of feet)

thin skin:
has all 5 strata but there are fewer layers of cells in strata; more flexible, hairs only found in thin skin

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5
Q

What is meant by “total skin thickness”

A

the epidermis and dermis combined (dermis accounts mostly for skin thickness)

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6
Q

What determines skin color

A

mostly via pigments (like melanin)

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7
Q

What is melanin/how does it determine skin color

A

melanocytes get phagocytized (engulfed) by keratinocytes - acquisition of melanosomes (vesicles with melanin)

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8
Q

what causes variation in skin color

A

variation in melanocortin 1 receptors - more melanin=darker skin, less melanin=lighter skin

UV exposure also darkens melanin already present

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9
Q

Temporary changes in skin coloration include

A

erythema
cyanosis
pale skin
other pigments

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10
Q

define erythema

A

reddish hue of skin due to increased blood flow; generally happens on face when hot or blushing

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11
Q

define cyanosis

A

bluish skin due to decreased blood flow (oxygen); occurs when someone is choking

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12
Q

define pale skin

A

reduced blood flow resulting in pale skin color; occurs when someone is startled or about to faint

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13
Q

What is another pigment that can temporarily change skin coloration

A

carotene (from carrots) - can turn skin orange if large amount of carrots are consumed in a short amount of time

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14
Q

What is the dermis comprised of

A

comprised of connective tissue (it is a CT as whole)

made of protein fibers (mostly collagen, but has some reticular & elastic)

fibroblasts and adipocytes

nerve endings and hair follicles

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15
Q

What are the 2 layers of tissue in the dermis

A
  1. papillary:
    contains dermal papillae (projections that make up fingerprints) and circulation structures (this is why it bleeds if you get a deep enough cut)
  2. Reticular:
    made of irregular connective tissue, joins skin with subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis)
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16
Q

What is the hypodermis

A

also known as the subcutaneous tissue, attaches skin to underlying tissue (like muscle tissue), subcutaneous fat storage (1/2 of body’s fat stored here - this is needed for insulation, padding, energy source)

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17
Q

Where is the sensory system located

A

dermis

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18
Q

what is the sensory system

A

nerve endings

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19
Q

what kinds of nerve endings exist in the sensory system and what are their functions

A

free nerve endings (pain, itch, tickle, temperature)

Merkel discs (light touch)

hair follicle receptors (light touch)

Pacinian corpuscle (deep pressure)

Meissner corpuscle (2 point stimulation

Ruffini end organ (continuous touch/pressure)

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20
Q

What are the types of hair

A

Lanugo
Terminal hair
Vellus hair

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21
Q

what is lanugo

A

delicate, soft, non-pigmented hair present on fetuses and newborns

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22
Q

what is terminal hair

A

coarse, pigmented hair found on scalp, eyelids, and eyebrows

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23
Q

what is vellus hair

A

fine, non-pigmented body hair found throughout the rest of the body

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24
Q

Structures of hair (draw diagram)

cross-section of hair (draw diagram)

A

hair shaft, hair follicle, root of hair

Concentric layers of hair:
Cuticle (outer) - has 1 cell layer of hard keratin

cortex - has 1 cell layer of hard keratin

medulla (center) - has 2-3 layers of soft keratin

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25
Q

stages of hair growth

A

Growth stage:
-period of time where hair actively grows, hair formation by matrix cells within the follicle

-differentiation &keratinization

-addition of cells at the base of the root = growth

-can last several weeks to couple of months

Resting stage:
-no hair growth
-old hair eventually replaced by the new one

*hair does not grow continuously, growth depends on the person and individual hair strand

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26
Q

How does hair color occur

A

varying concentrations of melanin

Types of melanin:
-eumelanin: brown or black (brunette family of color)

-phaeomelanin: Red (high concentrations) or blonde (less concentration)

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27
Q

how does hair get its texture

A

based on shape of hair follicle
oval=curly
more round=straight or wavy

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28
Q

what are the nails composed of

A

stratum corneum (hard keratin)

these cells do not slough off like cornified cells in the epidermis, they grow continuously

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29
Q

glands in skin

A

Sebaceous glands (exocrine):
-produce sebum (oil) which prevents water loss and bacterial infection, most associated with hair

Sweat glands:
-merocrine sweat glands are responsible for temperature regulation via sweating (evaporative cooling)

-apocrine sweat glands are associated with hair and are active for first time during puberty (pheromone release in evolutionary times), located under armpits

(Others):
Ceruminous glands:
-produce ear wax

Mammary glands:
-milk production

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30
Q

Additional Integument functions

A

temp regulation:
-sweat production - evaporative cooling

changes in blood flow in response to changes in environment:
-vasodilation; more warm blood flows to skin, results in heat loss (cool off)

-vasoconstriction; less warm blood flows to skin, results in heat retention (get warm)

31
Q

Vitamin D production process

A

Vitamin D is hormone, not true vitamin

Production:
-Occurs mostly in stratum Basale (deepest layer of epidermis)

-Skin UV exposure triggers VitD3 production

-D3 released into blood, converted to active form - (stimulates Ca++ & phosphate uptake at intestines and kidneys)

32
Q

What is common pathology in integumentary system

A

burns

33
Q

Degree refers to what of a burn

A

depth

34
Q

what combines %BSA & depth of burns

A

burn severity

35
Q

Define first-degree burn

A

only epidermis is affected
some pain, redness, swelling
fairly common

36
Q

Define second-degree burn

A

damage to epidermis & dermis
these vary b/c dermis is thick
can be red, tan, or white (if deep)
can scar if deep enough

37
Q

Define third-degree burn

A

epidermis and dermis completely destroyed
deeper tissues may be involved (like hypodermis)
sensory structures destroyed (affects ability to feel)
tan or brown color, leathery look
skin grafts often necessary

38
Q

Define major burn

A

3rd degree burn covers over 10% BSA OR
2nd degree burn covers over 25% BSA OR
Burns to hands, face, genitals, or anal region

39
Q

Define moderate burn

A

3rd degree burn covers 2-10% BSA OR
2nd degree burn covers 15-25% BSA

40
Q

Define minor burn

A

3rd degree burn covers less than 2% BSA OR
2nd degree burn covers less than 15% BSA

41
Q

what are the components of the skeletal system

A

bones

cartilages: hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage

tendons: connects muscles to bones

ligaments: connects bones to bones

42
Q

Bone matrix composition

A

organic portion: collagen fibers (provides flexible strength)

Inorganic portion: hydroxyapatite - CaPO4 crystals (provides weight bearing strength

43
Q

What are the different bone cells

A

Osteoblasts - production of matrix

Osteocytes - maintenance of matrix

Osteoclasts - breakdown of matrix

Osteochondral progenitor cells (stem cells)

44
Q

Define function of osteoblasts

A

secrete collagen , proteoglycans, hydroxyapatite precursor

cells surround themselves by matrix

mature into osteocytes (trapped in lacunae)

Ossification occurs - formation of bone by osteoblasts

45
Q

Define function of Osteocytes

A

maintenance of bone

surrounded by matrix (in lacunae)

projections extend into canaliculi to communicate with other osteocytes

transport of nutrients to each other through
-diffusion via liquid surrounding cell and filling lacunae and canaliculi
-gap junctions between cells

46
Q

Define function of Osteoclasts

A

Derived from monocytes (White blood cells)
-multinucleated, arise from fusion of several cells

cause bone breakdown

47
Q

Define bone breakdown process (draw osteoclast diagram)

A

-Podosomes form sealed compartment

-osteoclast secretes
H+ (hydrogen ions) - degrades bone matrix (hydroxyapatite) &
enzymes - degrades organic proteins (collagen)

-degraded products reabsorbed at ruffled border (moved through osteoclast, then secreted to enter blood)

48
Q

Define function of bone stem cells

A

mesenchymal stem cells: make osteochondral progenitor cells (can differentiate into osteoblasts or chondroblasts - osteoblasts mature to osteocytes)

Hematopoietic stem cells:
produce monocytes (fuse to form osteoclasts)

49
Q

What is bone remodeling

A

Removal of old bone material by osteoclasts, formation of new bone matrix by osteoblasts

Constant process

Basic Multicellular Unit (BMU)
-temporary assembly of osteoclasts & osteoblasts
-travel along bone, remove old matrix & replacing with new

*This BMU activity renews entire skeleton every ~10 years
(turns woven (developing) bone to lamellar/lamellae (mature) bone)

50
Q

Types of bone

A

Cancellous (spongy) Bone
Compact Bone

51
Q

Describe cancellous (spongy) bone

A

lots of open spaces

composed of trabeculae:
-interconnecting rods or plates of bone that create spaces

-spaces filled with marrow (primarily red)

-covered with endosteum (tissue lining inner spaces of bone)

-oriented along stress lines

52
Q

Describe Compact Bone
(Draw diagram of osteon)

A

Very dense

Contains osteons:
-central canal (Haversian canal)
*blood vessels

-Concentric Lamellae
*Bone matrix around central canal

-Lacunae & canaliculi
*Osteocytes & fluid

-Blood vessels
*Central Canal - run length wise
*Perforating (Volkmann’s) Canal - run width wise

53
Q

what are the different bone shapes

A

long: longer than it is wide

short: Cube-shaped

flat: Plate like

irregular: do not fall into other categories

54
Q

Long bone structures

A

Diaphysis:
-shaft of long bone
-mostly compact bone

Epiphyses:
-ends of long bone
-mostly cancellous bone

Epiphyseal plates:
-near epiphyses
-site of bone growth
-becomes epiphyseal line when bone growth stops

Medullary Cavity:
-hollow center in shaft
-contains marrows (red marrow during childhood, converts to yellow as we age)

Periosteum:
-Tissue membrane on outer surface of bone
-Outer layer - Dense irregular CT, continues with tendon
-Inner Layer - Bone Cells

Endosteum:
-lines all internal spaces including spaces in cancellous bone

55
Q

Flat bone structure

A

-no diaphyses, epiphyses
-sandwich of cancellous between compact bone

56
Q

Short & irregular bone structure

A

compact bone that surrounds cancellous bone center

57
Q

Describe growth in bone length

A

Occurs at epiphyseal plates

Formation of new cartilage:
-interstitial growth = growth in length of bone

-appositional growth = growth in diameter of bone

58
Q

Describe growth in bone length

A

Occurs at epiphyseal plates

Formation of new cartilage:
-interstitial growth = growth in length of bone

-appositional growth = growth in diameter of bone

Closure of epiphyseal plate (around adult stature):
-ossification at epiphyseal line
*occurs between 12 and 25 years of age

59
Q

Zones of the epiphyseal plate (Draw long bone and label)

A

Near Epiphysis:

-Zone of resting cartilage
*very slowly dividing chondrocytes

-Zone of proliferation
*Chondrocytes divide more rapidly - produce columns

-Zone of hypertrophy
*chondrocytes mature and enlarge

-Zone of calcification
*Chondrocytes take on calcium, and are replaced by bone

:Near Diaphysis

60
Q

Describe ossification centers

A

Primary ossification center:
-first area of bone to ossify
-usually during fetal development in central portion of bone

Secondary ossification center:
-areas of ossification that appear after primary ossification center
-mostly after birth & adolescence

61
Q

Describe growth at articular cartilage

A

slow chondrocyte division, similar to in zone of resting cartilage

No ossification

62
Q

how does nutrition affect bone growth

A

Nutrition:
-calcium & protein during development

-Vitamin D - necessary for absorption of calcium from intestines
*Lack/deficiency of VitD reduces hydroxyapatite, which reduces bone strength causing them to be soft = rickets in children, Osteomalacia in adults

-Vitamin C - necessary for collagen synthesis by osteoblasts
*Lack/deficiency of VitC reduces collagen, which reduces flexible strength of bone, causing them to be brittle = scurvy

63
Q

how do hormones affect bone growth

A

Growth hormone: pituitary gland
- stimulates interstitial cartilage growth & appositional bone growth

Thyroid hormones: thyroid gland
-allows Growth hormone (GH) & other hormones to have full effect

Sex Steroids: gonads
-testosterone - growth @ puberty
-estradiol - causes closure of epiphyseal plates & cessation of growth

64
Q

Describe the bone repair process

A
  1. Hematoma formation
    -localized mass of blood within a confined space
    -usually clot forms
    -swelling & inflammation
  2. Callus Formation
    -connection of broken bones
    *internal callus - between broken ends and medullary cavity
    *External callus - around ends of fracture
    -stabilization of bones via cartilage collar
    -applying a cast helps to stabilize
  3. Callus ossification
    -replacement of cartilage in external callus by woven, cancellous bone
    -ossification of internal callus
    -additional bone stabilization
  4. Bone remodeling
    -replacement of callus by mineralized bone
    -restoration of medullary cavity
65
Q

Describe calcium homeostasis

A

-bones = storage site for Ca++

-shift out of homeostasis: too much or too little Ca++ in the blood

-signals whether to release or absorb Ca++ from or into bones
*Activity of osteoblasts & osteoclasts

-Hormonally mediated
*parathyroid hormone (PTH)
*Vitamin D
*Calcitonin

66
Q

How are joints classified

A

classes of joints are based on structure

67
Q

what are the joint classifications

A

Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial

68
Q

Describe fibrous joints

A

-2 bones united by fibrous connective tissue
-very little movement

Examples:
*sutures - seams between bones of skull

*Fontanels - flexible joints of infant skull

*syndesmoses - slightly moveable joint made of ligaments between farther apart bones

*Gomphoses - pegs in sockets (teeth in mandible & maxillae)

69
Q

Describe Cartilaginous joints

A

-2 bones united by cartilage

Examples:
*Synchondrosis - bones joined by hyaline cartilage, little or no movement
(between 1st rib & sternum)

*Symphysis - bones joined by fibrocartilage, slightly flexible, some shock absorption
(pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs)

70
Q

Describe Synovial joints

A

-2 bones united by fluid-filled capsule

-considerable movement between articulating bones

-hyaline cartilage at articular surfaces of bones

-some synovial joints have meniscus

71
Q

Describe meniscus

A

-pad of fibrocartilage
-helps with (synovial) joint stability
(found in knee and wrist)

72
Q

Describe synovial joint capsule

A

-holds bones together

*fibrous capsule - outer layer of synovial joint capsule, made of dense regular CT

*Synovial membrane - inner layer of synovial joint capsule, modified CT cells

*Joint cavity in capsule - contains synovial fluid

*Bursa - extension of joint cavity (in some joints), extra cushion

73
Q

What injury could occur to meniscus

A

meniscus tears are a common sports injury

Treatment: rest, sometimes surgery if severe

Locations: Knee, wrist

74
Q

What injury could occur to bursa in synovial joint capsule

A

Bursitis: inflammation of bursa
-caused by overuse, injury, sometimes infection

Treatment: rest, anti-inflammatory medicines

Common locations: shoulder, elbow, hip

Anatomy & Physiology 1 (8 decks)

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