Exam 1: Human Body/Organization, Histology, Little bit of Integumentary system Flashcards
Define Anatomy
Study of structural components of the body and relationships between body parts
Define Physiology
Study of the body’s functions
What defines something as living?
- Organization
- Energy use & metabolism
- Response to environmental changes
- Regulation & Homeostasis
- Growth & Development
- Reproduction
- Biological evolution
What are the levels of biological organization?
(Smallest —> Largest)
Atoms
Molecules
Cells - (Basic unit of life!)
Tissues - (comprised of organized grouping of cells)
Organs - (comprised of organized grouping of tissues)
Organ systems - (comprised of multiple organs)
Organism - (A single human being)
Define Homeostasis
Homeo=similar
Stasis=period or state of inactivity or equilibrium
Maintenance of relatively constant internal body conditions - despite changes in the external environment - through activity of regulatory mechanisms.
(A.K.A. Dynamic Equilibrium in which body conditions are maintained within narrow limits)
What happens when homeostasis does not occur/is out of whack?
illness and pathology starts to occur
What is an example of your body exercising homeostasis?
Sweating - your internal environment stays constant as you sweat to cool off
What are physiological control systems?
Physiological control systems help maintain homeostasis
What are the parts of physiological control systems and their functions?
Stimulus - causes body to start shifting out of homeostasis
Sensor - Responsible for detecting stimulus
Integrator - Makes the “decision” on how to fix the problem
Effector(s) - Produce the response that returns the body to homeostasis
How do physiological control systems operate?
Under one or more feedback loops
What are positive feedback loops?
Rare, continued “vicious” cycle until ended by a major event
What is the goal of positive feedback loops?
increased stimulus, continual shift away from homeostasis
What are some examples of positive feedback loops?
Blood clotting, ovulation, labor during childbirth
What are negative feedback loops?
Most common type of feedback, responsible for almost all physiological regulation
What is the goal of negative feedback loops?
Reduce stimulus to return body to homeostasis
What are examples of negative feedback loops?
Blood sugar regulation, temperature regulation
Define etymology
the origin of words, generally Greek or Latin
What is the anatomical body position?
position in which feet are pointed forward, body is standing up straight, and palms are facing out
What is the anatomical body position?
position in which feet are pointed forward, body is standing up straight, and palms are facing out
What is the importance of different body positions?
They help us understand directional relationships of structures on or in the body
What are the non-standing body postions?
supine and prone
Define supine
body position in which someone is laying on their back, face up
Define prone
body position in which someone is laying on their stomach, face down
What are directional terms?
They usually come in pairs and compare structures
How are proximal and distal used to compare structures?
used to compare linear structures such as the arms or legs
Define proximal
closer to the attachment point to the body
(Ex. the elbow is proximal to the wrist)
Define distal
farther from the attachment point to the body
(Ex. elbow is distal to the shoulder)
How are superior and inferior used to compare structures?
They are NOT used when referring to arms or legs because this is not as accurate in all the body positions
Define superior
above
(Ex. The head is superior to the chest)
Define inferior
below
(Ex. the nose is inferior to the eyes)
Define medial
closer to the midline (middle) of the body
(Ex. The spine is medial to the ribcage)
Define lateral
Away from the midline (middle) of the body, closer to the sides of the body
(Ex. The lungs are lateral to the heart)
Define Anterior
towards the front of the body
(Ex. the eyes are anterior to the butt)
Define posterior
towards the back of the body
(Ex. the achilles tendon is posterior to the nose)
Define superficial
closer to the surface of the body
(Ex. the skin is superficial to the bones)
Define deep
toward the core (center) of the body
(Ex. The bones are deep to the skin)
What is the sagittal body plane?
plane that separates the left and right sides of the body
What is a midsagittal (median) plane?
plane that separates the body into exact right and left halves (straight down the middle)
What is a parasagittal plane?
plane that is parallel to the midsagittal plane
What is a transverse (horizontal) plane?
plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions
What is a frontal (coronal) plane?
plane that splits the body into anterior and posterior portions
What is a longitudinal organ section?
Section that is cut along the long axis of an organ
What is a cross (transverse) organ section?
section that is cut at a right angle to the long axis
What is an oblique organ section?
section that is cut along the long axis at any angle that is not 90 degrees
What are body cavities?
spaces in the body where organs are found
Which body cavities are open to the external environment?
Nasal cavity, oral cavity
What are some enclosed body cavities?
cranial - holds brain
vertebral - holds spinal cord
thoracic - holds heart and lungs
abdominal - holds stomach, intestines, liver, etc.
pelvic - holds reproductive organs
What are serous membranes?
membranes that surround organs
How many layers do serous membranes have?
2
What is the parietal layer of serous membranes?
this is the outer layer of serous membranes which lines the wall(s) of body cavities
What is the visceral layer of serous membranes?
this is the inner layer of serous membranes which touches the outer wall(s) of organ(s)
What is located between the layers of serous membranes?
serous fluid
What is the function of serous fluid?
Allows for lubrication and smooth movement
What are examples of serous membranes in the body?
Pericardium - heart
Pleura - lungs
Peritoneum - organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
Define histology
The study of tissues
What are the 4 major types of tissues?
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
What are tissues composed of?
cells and the extracellular matrix
How are tissues classified?
the structure of cells, the composition of the extracellular matrix, and the function of cells
What is the function of epithelial tissues?
covers/protects surfaces inside and outside the body and the formation of glands
Where can epithelium be found?
lining of the digestive and respiratory systems, heart, blood vessels, inside body cavities
What are epithelial tissues composed of?
contains mostly cells with little extracellular matrix
What is the basement membrane?
attaches epithelial tissue to underlying tissues
What are the cell surface types?
Apical (top), Lateral (side), Basal (bottom)
How are epithelial tissues classified?
2 part naming system
1. # of cell layers on the basement membrane
2. Shape of cells at the apical surface
Simple (tissue) definition
one layer of cells on the basement membrane
stratified (tissues) definition
2 or more cell layers on the basement membrane
Squamous (tissue) definition
flattened
Cuboidal (tissue) definition
rounded/cube-shaped
columnar (tissue) definition
tall/elongated shape
Major functions of simple squamous epithelium
diffusion, filtration, some protection against friction
Location of simple squamous epithelium
Bowman’s capsule in kidney, alveoli in lungs
Major functions of simple cuboidal epithelium
secretion and absorption, movement of particles when ciliated
location of simple cuboidal epithelium
kidney tubules
major functions of simple columnar epithelium
movement of particles (when ciliated), secretion and absorption in GI tract
location of simple columnar epithelium
stomach, fallopian tubes
What are the 2 types of stratified epithelium?
- Keratinized - contains living cells in lower layer near BM and has dead cells containing keratin (hardened) near apical surface
- Non-keratinized (moist) - Living cells are in all layers
Major functions of stratified squamous epithelium
protection, barrier against infection
location of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
skin
locations of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
mouth, throat, esophagus, larynx (voice-box), anus, vagina
What is pseudostratified epithelium?
epithelial tissue that looks stratified due the irregular shape of cells, but there is really only one layer of cells on BM
major functions of pseudostratified epithelium
mucus secretion, movement of particles (when ciliated)
location of pseudostratified epithelium
lines nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi
What are the rare types of stratified epithelium?
stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar
location of stratified cuboidal epithelium
sweat gland ducts, salivary gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells
location of stratified columnar epithelium
mammary gland ducts, parts of male urethra, parts of larynx
What are goblet cells?
goblet-shaped cells that are interspersed within columnar epithelium (both simple and pseudostratified)
Function: mucus secretion via secretory vesicles
Location: GI and Respiratory tracts
What is transitional epithelium?
tissue that can stretch and expand.
The cells within these tissues appear cuboidal or columnar when not stretched
The cells appear squamous when tissue is stretched
Locations: urinary bladder, ureters, superior portion of urethra (all areas where stretch is needed)
Function of simple epithelium
facilitate movement of materials in and out
functions of stratified epithelium
provide protection
functions of squamous epithelium
diffusion and filtration
functions of cuboidal and columnar epithelium
secretion and absorption
Function of smooth apical cell surface
reduces friction
Function of microvilli on apical cell surface
increases surface area of cell - helps with absorption
function of cilia on apical cell surface
movement of substances across cell surface
how do glands form?
from epithelial tissue
What are exocrine glands
glands that have a hollow center with duct that secretes products outside the body
(Ex. sweat and tear glands)
what are endocrine glands?
have no ducts but have extensive vascularization (blood vessels) responsible for secreting hormones into blood circulation.
What is the composition of connective tissues?
lots of extracellular matrix, fewer cells
What are the types of Connective tissue?
Connective tissue proper
-loose and dense CT
Supporting connective tissue
-cartilage and bone
Fluid connective tissue
-blood
define suffix -blast in regards to tissue matrix
production of matrix
define suffix -cyte in regards to tissue matrix
maintenance of matrix
define suffix -clast in regards to tissue matrix
breakdown of matrix
What are adipocytes?
fat cells that store lipids
what are mast cells?
responsible for inflammation
what are immune cells?
leukocytes (white blood cells)
macrophage
what are mesenchymal cells?
adult stem cells
What are the loose connective tissues that fall into the Connective Tissue Proper?
Areolar Tissue
Adipose Tissue
Reticular Tissue
Areolar tissue functions
loose “packing material”, attaches skin to underlying tissues, contains collagen fibers, reticular fibers, and elastic fibers
Areolar tissue location
beneath skin
Adipose tissue location and function
located in fat and contains adipocytes with large amounts of lipids
Reticular tissue location and function
lymphatic system has reticular fibers and cells that produce fibers
What are the Dense connective tissues that fall into the connective tissue proper?
Dense Regular Collagenous
Dense Regular Elastic
Dense Irregular Collagenous
Dense Irregular Elastic
Dense regular collagenous CT location
tendons, ligaments and are mostly made up of collagen fibers
Dense Regular Elastic CT location
ligaments in vocal cords and are made up of collagen and elastin
Dense Irregular Collagenous CT location
Dermis
Dense Irregular Elastic CT location
elastic arteries such as the aorta
Loose CT meaning
has few protein fibers and more ground substance
Dense CT meaning
more protein fibers, less ground substance
Dense Regular meaning
fibers are oriented mostly in one direction
Dense Irregular meaning
randomly or non-parallel oriented fibers
What tissues fall into the supporting tissue category for connective tissues?
Bone tissue
Cartilage
What is the composition of cartilage?
chondrocytes and rigid matrix, perichondrium surrounds cartilage, no blood vessels or nerves present except in perichondrium
What are the cartilage types?
hyaline cartilage
fibrocartilage
elastic cartilage
location of hyaline cartilage
ribs, nose, trachea, many joint surfaces
has dispersed collagen fibers
location of fibrocartilage
intervertebral discs, tendon and ligament attachments to bone, some joint capsules
Has many dense collagen fibers
Location of Elastic cartilage
external ear, epiglottis, larynx
has elastic and collagen fibers
What are lacunae?
cavities that house chrondrocytes
Bone tissue composition
cells (osteocytes) and extracellular matrix that has organic portion containing collagen and inorganic portion containing hydroxyapatite (calcium and phosphate)
Tissues that fall into the Fluid Connective tissue category
Blood
hematopoietic tissue
Blood
liquid matrix (plasma)
cellular components (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets)
Location: blood
Hematopoietic Tissue Location
Bone marrow and is responsible for forming blood cells
What are the types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal muscle tissue
Cardiac muscle tissue
smooth muscle tissue
What is skeletal muscle tissue?
voluntary, striated
enables locomotion and is located attached to bones
What is Cardiac muscle tissue?
Involuntary, striated
found in the heart
What is smooth muscle tissue?
involuntary, not striated
found in walls of hollow organs (digestive system), and blood vessels
Where is nervous tissue found?
Found in brain, spinal cord, nerves
What cells are in nervous tissue?
neurons - functional signaling cells
Glia - supporting cells for neurons
What are the functions of the integumentary system?
Protection (this is main function)
sensation (via sensory receptors in skin)
body temperature maintenance (via blood flow & sweat glands)
Vitamin D production (from UV exposure)
Excretion of some waste products
How many layers of tissue are located in the skin?
2 layers
What are the 2 layers that make up the skin?
- Epidermis
- Dermis
What is the epidermis?
most superficial layer of skin that is made up of stratified squamous epithelium and has no vasculature
Function: Protection!, diffusion of nutrients and gas
What is the dermis?
middle layer of skin responsible for structural support
made up of areolar connective tissue and dense irregular connective tissue
What is the hypodermis?
Deep layer under the skin (not technically part of skin) that is responsible for connecting skin to the underlying tissues (such as adipose (fat) tissue)
What are some accessory structures that may be present in the skin?
hairs, glands, follicles
What are the cell types in the epidermis?
melanocytes - pigmentation
Langerhan’s cells - Immune function
Merkel Cells - light touch & pressure
Keratinocytes - produce Keratin, make up majority of epidermis, process called keratinization
What is keratinization?
- Mitosis occurs in deep layers of cells, which produces new cells
- New cells push old cells superficially (up)
- The old cells start to change shape and composition
- These changed, dead cells form the outer layer of the epidermis
- This is a constant process of renewal (~19 days)
What are the strata of the epidermis?
(Deep to Superficial)
1. Stratum Basale
2. Stratum Spinosum
3. Stratum Granulosum
4. Stratum Lucidum
5. Stratum Corneum
Describe the Stratum Basale
deepest layer of epidermis anchored to BM. Here keratinocyte stem cells divide via mitosis about every 19 days
Describe the Stratum Spinosum
2nd strata of epidermis where keratin a lamellar bodies filled with lipids accumulate in cells
Describe the Stratum Granulosum
3rd strata of epidermis where cells become diamond-shaped. Granules with the protein keratohyalin accumulate and lamellar bodies release their lipids. Cells die here.
Describe the Stratum Lucidum
4th strata of the epidermis where keratohyalin is dispersed around keratin fibers and cells flatten and overlap
Describe Stratum Corneum
5th and most superficial strata of the epidermis containing dead and overlapping squamous cells. Cornified cells (cells with “hard” protective layer of keratin) regularly slough off.
