exam 2 key terms and concepts Flashcards
AMPA
a compound that is a specific agonist for the AMPA receptor, where it mimics the effects of the neurotransmitter glutamate
- responsible for the bulk of fast excitatory synaptic transmission throughout the CNS and their modulation is the ultimate mechanism that underlies much of the plasticity of excitatory transmission that is expressed in the brain
anxiolytics
a drug used to reduce anxiety
excitatory amino acid nuerotransmitters
an amino acid which is able to transmit a nerve message across a synapse. neurotransmitters are packaged into vesicles that cluster beneath the axon terminal membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse in a process called endocytosis
GABAergic synapse
GABA is the main neurotransmitter at inhibitory synapses in the mammalian brain. it is essential for maintaining the excitation and inhibition ratio, whose imbalance underlies various brain diseases
glutamate recognition site
glutamatergic synapse
main excitatory synapses in the brain. consist of glutamate localized inside presynaptic vesicles and glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
glycine site
a therapeutic target for improving cognition and reducing negative symptoms
- glycine is inhibitory
kainate
ionotropic receptors that respond to the neurotransmitter glutamate
- kainate receptors are ionotropic glutamate receptors that mediate fast excitatory neurotransmission and are localized to the presynaptic and postsynaptic sides of excitatory synapses
metabotropic
also referred to as G-protein-coupled-receptor, a type of membrane receptor that initiates a number of metabolic steps to modulate cell activity.
Mg2+ site
- numerous physiological roles among which are control of neuronal activity, cardiac excitability, neuromuscular transmission, muscular contraction, vasomotor tone, blood pressure and peripheral blood flow
NMDA
a family of L-glutamate receptors, play an important role in learning and memory, and are critical for spatial memory
PCP site
major action is as a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA class of glutamate receptor
- believed to bind to a site within the channel pore that is only accessible when the channel is open
sedative-hypnotics
classes of drugs used to induce and/or maintain sleep
gamma-aminobutryic acid (GABA)
the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. its principal role is reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system
- functions as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter - reduce neuronal excitability by inhibiting nerve transmission
acetaldehyde
organic chemical compound
- when you drink alcohol, your liver turns acetadehyde into an acid. some enters the blood and can damage membranes and cause scar tissue, this is what results in a hangover
baclofen
used to help relax certain muscles in the body
- relieves spasms, cramping, and tightness of meculees
barbiturate site
barbiturates bind to specific GABA sensitive ion channels found within the CNS
- by binding to these sites, barbiturates allow an influx of chloride into cell membranes and subsequently hyperpolarize the postsynaptic neuron
BDZ agonist (diazepam)
anxiolytic and sedative
- works by increasing the levels of calming chemicals in your brain
BDZ antagonist (flumazenil)
GABA receptor antagonist
- it can treat drowsiness caused by sedatives following surgery or drug overdose
BDZ inverse agonist
bind to benzodiazepine receptor site but have reverse effects
benzodiazepine
class of depressant drugs
- produce sedation and hypnosis, relieve anxiety and muscle spasms, and reduce seizures
- slow down the central nervous system
bicuclline
light sensitive competitive antagonist of GABA receptors
- induces clonic and tonic-clonic seizures
buspirone
belongs to the anxiolytics class, it works by changing the amount of certain substances in the brain
chloral hydrate
used as a short-term treatment of insomnia. it may also be used to decrease anxiety
- do not take with alcohol or barbiturates, or diazepam
chlordiazepoxide
used to relieve symptoms of anxiety, including nervousness or anxiety, it may also be taken to treat symptoms of alcohol withdrawal
- benzodiazepine
diazepam
used to relieve anxiety and to control agitation caused by alcohol withdrawal, can also be used along with other medications to control muscle spasms
- benzodiazepines
- works by calming abnormal overactivity in the brain
disulfiram
used to treat chronic alcoholism - causes side effect when small amounts of alcohol are consumed
ethanol
chemical in alcohol
GABA aminotransferase
glutamate
most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in your brain and nervous system
- plays a role in shaping learning and memory
muscimol
one of the most widely used agonists of ionotropic GABA receptors
NAD
NADH
oxazepam
benzodiazepine
- can treat anxiety, anxiety with depression, and symptoms of alcohol withdrawal
pentobarbital
works in the CNS by binding to GABAa subtype receptors. this action induces a change in the chloride transport receptor leading to an increase in the duration that the chloride channels remain open, hence potentiating GABA effects
pentylenetrazol
noncompeitive antagonism of the GABAa receptor complex
- anticonvulsant
phenobarbital
increases the amount of time chloride channels are open, depressing the central nervous system
- used to control seizures
pircrotozin
CNS stimulant, GABA antagonist, it is a noncompetitive antagonist at GABAa receptors and thus a convulsant
secobarbital
used to treat insomnia, can cause paranoia, or suicidal ideation, and impair memory
- depresses CNS activity by binding to barbiturate site at GABA receptor complex enhancing GABA activity, depressing reticular activity system
steroid site
bind to intracellular receptors which then act to modulate gene transcription in target tissues
thiopental
what does excitatory vs. inhibitory amino acids mean?
Excitatory amino acids (EAA) will activate post-synaptic cells. inhibitory amino acids (IAA) depress the activity of post-synaptic cells.
why do some amino acids cause excitation and other inhibition?
describe the locations of the synthesis storage and degradation of glutamate
how does glutamate cause neuronal injury?
During pathological conditions such as those experienced during ischemia, excessive release of glutamate overactivates glutamate receptors, resulting in a massive influx of sodium ions, chloride ions, and water, which cause neurons to swell and may ultimately lead to rapid neuronal loss from necrosis.
what other agents act on GABAa receptors and why is this important?
Of particular importance are drugs that modulate GABAA receptor complex, such as benzodiazepines, barbiturates, neuroactive steroids, intravenous and inhalational anesthetics, and ethanol.
list the various classes of CNS depressants and give examples of each class
Alcohol.
Barbiturates.
Benzodiazepines.
Many Sleeping Pills.
Opioids.
what are common terms for CNS depressants
sedatives or tranquilizers
what are the consequences of the drug blockade of glutamate receptors?
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Mechanistically, antagonist-mediated blocking of NMDA receptor (hypofunctioning) leads to the excessive release of excitatory neurotransmitters (glutamate and acetylcholine) in different brain regions, which in turn causes hyperstimulation of postsynaptic neurons and subsequent induction of psychotic conditions.
describe the consequences of a person taking progressively larger doses of a non-selective CNS depressant?
Excessive consumption of depressants can lead to respiratory depression, seizures, and potentially even death. CNS depressants should not be combined with any medication or substance that causes sedation, including prescription pain medicines, certain over-the-counter allergy medications, and alcohol.
what is meant by cross-tolerance of CNS depressants
Cross-tolerance is a phenomenon that occurs when tolerance to the effects of a certain drug produces tolerance to another drug. It often happens between two drugs with similar functions or effects—for example, acting on the same cell receptor or affecting the transmission of certain neurotransmitters.
what mechanisms are responsible for the differing durations of action of various barbiturates
inhibition of the central nervous system. It causes central nervous system depression. This is brought about by stimulating the inhibitory neurotransmitter system in the brain called the [gamma]-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system.
what are the oldest CNS depressants? the newest?
why might antiepileptic drugs be considered for use in non-epileptic psychological disorders?
The AEDs gabapentin (GBP) and pregabalin (PGB) have become the mainstay of treatment for various neuropathic pain syndromes, owing to their ability to inhibit neuronal hyperactivity along the pain pathways.
activated microglia
observed in various central nervous system (CNS) diseases and is important for coordinating the immune system’s resources during disease-associated neuroinflammation.
- The chronic activation of microglia may in turn cause neuronal damage through the release of potentially cytotoxic molecules such as proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen intermediates, proteinases and complement proteins.
- following exposure to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and/or endogenous damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and removal of the immune-suppressive signals. Activated microglia can acquire different phenotypes depending on cues in its surrounding environment.
acute phase response
is a prominent systemic reaction of the organism to local or systemic disturbances in its homeostasis caused by infection, tissue injury, trauma or surgery, neoplastic growth or immunological disorders
adrenal cortex
the outer region and also the largest part of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones.
- The adrenal cortex produces several hormones. The most important are aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid), cortisol (a glucocorticoid), and androgens and estrogen (sex hormones).
adrenal medulla
The inner part of the adrenal gland (a small organ on top of each kidney). The adrenal medulla makes chemicals such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) which are involved in sending nerve signals. Enlarge.
adrenocorticotrophic hormone
to stimulate your adrenal glands to release cortisol. Cortisol is an essential hormone that affects almost every organ and tissue in your body.
anterior pituitary
is the front lobe of your pituitary gland, which is a small, pea-sized gland located at the base of your brain below your hypothalamus. Your pituitary gland is a part of your endocrine system and controls the function of several other endocrine glands.
autocrine cell
a form of cell signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger that binds to autocrine receptors on that same cell, leading to changes in the cell.
autonomic nervous system
corticotropin-releasing hormone
a peptide hormone that activates the synthesis and release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the pituitary gland
- affects our response. to stress, addiction, and depression amongst others
cytokines
any number of substances such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells
exocrine
relating to or denoting glands that secrete their products through ducts opening onto an epithelium rather than directly into the bloodtream
homeostasis
inflammatory response
non specific response that occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, heat, toxins, or any other cause
- the damaged cells release chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and porstaglandins
lymphocytes
a form of small leukocyte with a single round nucleus
macrophages
a large phagocytic cell found in stationary from in the tissues or as a mobile white blood cell, especially at sites of infection
mast cells
play an important role in how the immune system responds to certain bacteria and parasties and they help control other types of immune responses
microglia
glial cells derived from the mesoderm that function as macrophages in the CNS
- regulate brain development, maintenance of neuronal networks, and injury repair
negative feedback
refers to a case where outputs from a system are subsequently fed back into it, minimizing or reducing the effect of subsequent iterations
paracrine cell
often cells that are near one another communicate through the release of chemical messengers
pheromone
substances which are secreted to the outside by an individual and received by a second individual of the same species
pituitary gland
the major endocrine gland, attached to the base of the brain, is important in controlling growth and development and the functioning of the other endocrine glands
pre-ganglionic fiber
originating from the brain or spinal cord enter motor ganglia, where they synapse on multipolar cell bodies.
post-ganglionic fiber
are a set of nerve fibers that present in the autonomic nervous system which connects the ganglion to the effector organ.
sympathetic chain
ganglionated chain present bilaterlaly extending from the base of the skull to the coccyx
atropine
antimuscarinic that works through competitive inhibition of postganglionic acetylcholine receptors and direct vagolytic action, which leads to parasympathetic inhibition of the acetylcholine receptors in smooth muscle.S
catechol-o-methyltransferase
one of several enzymes that degrade catecholamines, catecholestrogens, and various drugs and substances having a catechol structure. In humans, catechol-O-methyltransferase protein is encoded by the COMT gene
- By inhibiting the enzyme catechol-o-methyl-transferase (COMT), they prevent peripheral degradation of levodopa, allowing a higher concentration to cross the blood-brain barrier.
dopa
is an amino acid that is made and used as part of the normal biology of some plants and animals, including humans. Humans, as well as a portion of the other animals that utilize l-DOPA, make it via biosynthesis from the amino acid l-tyrosine.
dopamine
a chemical released in the brain that makes you feel good. Having the right amount of dopamine is important both for your body and your brain. Dopamine helps nerve cells to send messages to each other.
hexamenthonium
a non-depolarising ganglionic blocker, a nicotinic receptor antagonist that acts in autonomic ganglia by binding mostly in or on the nAChR receptor, and not the acetylcholine binding site itself.
monoamine oxidase
involved in removing the neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine from the brain. MAOIs prevent this from happening, which makes more of these brain chemicals available to effect changes in both cells and circuits that have been impacted by depression.
muscarine
a natural product found in certain mushrooms, particularly in Inocybe and Clitocybe species, such as the deadly C. dealbata. Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena have also been found to contain levels of muscarine which can be dangerous if ingested.
muscarinic receptor anatgonist
is a type of anticholinergic agent that blocks the activity of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor.
uses: allergies, asthma, atrial fibrillation, parkinsons
nicotine receptor antagonist
ganglion blockers and peripheral muscle relaxants. The differences between the nicotinic receptors at autonomic ganglia and those at the neuromuscular junction mentioned above form the basis of the distinct pharmacodynamic actions of these two classes of drugs.
norepinephrine
is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. It plays an important role in your body’s “fight-or-flight” response. As a medication, norepinephrine is used to increase and maintain blood pressure in limited, short-term serious health situations
oxytocin
Hormone
It can cause or strengthen labor contractions during childbirth, and control bleeding after childbirth. It can also be used to induce abortion.
tyrosine
a nonessential amino acid the body makes from another amino acid called phenylalanine. It is an essential component for the production of several important brain chemicals called neurotransmitters, including epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine.
vasopressin
or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or arginine vasopressin (AVP) is a nonapeptide synthesized in the hypothalamus. Science has known it to play essential roles in the control of the body’s osmotic balance, blood pressure regulation, sodium homeostasis, and kidney functioning.
What are the major functions of the central nervous system? What is homeostasis?
the body’s processing center
- controls most of the functions of the body including awareness, movement, thinking, speech and the 5 sense
- homeostasis of the body
How do the autonomic nervous system, hormones and immune factors contribute to
homeostasis?
hormones and chemicals can be used in the regulation of homeostasis
What is the role of behavior in homeostasis?
an organisms tendency to maintain stability or equilibrium through various behavioral processes
- temp. regulation through shivering or sweating
- panting
- satiety
Compare and contrast the anatomy and function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
parasympathetic = rest and digest, sacral region of spinal cord, medulla, and cranial nerves, longer pathways, slower system, restores body to state of calm, decreases heart rate, no involvement of the adrenal gland, nuerons are cholinergic- acetylcholine
sympathetic = fight or flight, control the body’s response during percieved threat, thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, very short neurons, faster system, body speeds up, tenses up, increase in heart contraction and heart rate, muscles contract, releases adrenaline (the adrenal gland), neurons are mostly adrenergic
Describe the similarities and differences between the actions of the endocrine and
autonomic nervous systems.
the endocrine system uses chemical signaling (hormones, produced by glands) while the nervous system uses electrical signaling (neural impulses). the signal transmission of the nervous system is fast because neurons are interconnected, but the functions are more short-lived. signal transmission in the endocrine system is slow since hormones must travel through the bloodstream, but the responses tend to last longer
What are the effects of inactivation of the sympathetic nervous system and the
adrenal medulla?
Compare the way the brain controls the anterior and posterior pituitary.
- the anterior pituitary manufactures hormones (the posterior just stores them) the secretion of hormones is regulated by two classes of hormones that are secreted by the hypothalamus
- GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, beta endorphin, and prolactin
- the posterior pituitary gland does not produce hormones but rather stores and secretes hormones produced by the hypothalamus. the hormones travel along the axons into storage sites in the axon terminals of the posterior pituitary. in response to signals from the same hypothalamic neurons, the hormones are released from the axon terminals into the bloodstream
Discuss the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis.
the main function involves the body’s response to stress
- when something stressful happens to use, our intiail response is mediated by the sympathetic nervous system. this response occurs almost immediately and results in the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine, both of which work to enact changes that you would generally expect if you felt stressed or scared
- about 10 seconds later, the HPA axis is stimulated, the hypothalamus responds to signals like elevated norepinphrine levels by secreting cortiocotopin rleasing hormones into the blood stream, which also tells the pituitary galnd tos secrete a substance called ACTH
- the pituitary gland releases ACTH and the hormone travels down to the adrenal cortex
- ACTH binds to receptors on the surface of the adrenal cortices, leading to a series of intracellular events that result in the adrenal glands secreting glucocorticoids like cortisol
Describe how the CNS and endocrine systems are linked.
the brain relies on chemical messengers sent by the endocrine system to transmit instructions around the body via the nervous system to key organs for growth and metabolism
Justify the statement that the hypothalamus is the “key” to homeostasis.
the hypothalamus acts as your body’s smart control coordinating center
- its main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis. it does its job by directly influencing your autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones
Compare the innate vs. adaptive immune systems.
innate = nonspecific - the immune system with which you were born, it protects you from all antigens, involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body, first line of defense
adaptive = specific and acquired, subsystem that is composed of specialized systemic cells and processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth
Describe the body’s defenses against pathogens.
primary defense are physical barriers like the skin
- further acquired and chemcial defenses
What are cytokines and why are they important for immune functions?
important for cell communication
How does the systemic immune system communicate with the CNS?
the brain and the immune system communicate through neurotransmitters, cytokines, and endocrine hormones
Why are microglia important?
immune cells of the CNS and consequently play important roles in brain infections and inflammation.
- in a healthy brain, microglia are highly dynamic, moving constantly to actively survey the brain
behavioral methods
methods used to study the neural, molecular, genetic or physiological mechanisms that underlie behavior in humans or other animals
simple behavioral responses
change in social behaviors, aggression, parental behavior, impairment of response inhibition, motivation
sensitization
an increase in response magnitude to a repeated stimulus
habituation
a reduction in response magnitude to a repeated stimulus
autoradiography
a technique using x-ray film, phosphor imaging plates, beta imaging systems, or phot-nuclear emulsion to visualize molecules or fragments of molecules that have been radioactively labeled, and it has been used to quantify and localize drugs in tissues and cells
immunocytochemistry
used to help diagnose diseases
- used to anatomically visualize the localization of a specific protein or antigen in cells by use of a specific primary antibody that binds to it
in situ hybridization
s a technique that is used for localization and detection of specific DNA and RNA sequences in cells, preserved tissue sections, or entire tissue by hybridizing the complementary strand of a nucleotide probe to a particular sequence.
stereotaxic surgery
a minimally invasive form of surgical intervention that makes use of a three-dimensional coordinate system to locate small targets inside the body and to perform on them some action such as ablation, biopsy, lesion, injection, stimulation, implantation, radiosurgery (SRS), etc.
deep brain stimulation
a neurosurgical procedure involving the placement of a medical device called a neurostimulator, which sends electrical impulses, through implanted electrodes, to specific
ablation and lesions of the brain
represents the tissue region that has undergone irreversible injury, and its quantification entails accurate assessment of the thermal dose received by the tissue.
antisense on protein synthesis
Antisense is the non-coding DNA strand of a gene. In a cell, antisense DNA serves as the template for producing messenger RNA (mRNA), which directs the synthesis of a protein.
bioassay
an analytical method to determine the concentration or potency of a substance by its effect on living animals or plants (in vivo), or on living cells or tissues(in vitro). A bioassay can be either quantal or quantitative, direct or indirect.
chemical assay
analyze the quality of raw materials. Organic chemicals, for example, are assayed using gas chromatography and infrared spectroscopy. Raw materials in manufacturing may be assayed using titration or gravimetric analysis. Generally, these seek to determine the quantity of a constituent in a sample.
radioimmunoassay
a technique for determining antibody levels by introducing an antigen labeled with a radioisotope and measuring the subsequent radioactivity of the antibody component.
beta-adnergic receptors
control key physiological functions by transducing signals encoded in catecholamine hormones and neurotransmitters to activate intracellular signaling pathways.
alpha blocking
also known as α-blockers or α-adrenoreceptor antagonists, are a class of pharmacological agents that act as antagonists on α-adrenergic receptors. Historically, alpha-blockers were used as a tool for pharmacologic research to develop a greater understanding of the autonomic nervous system
alpha rhythm
or the alpha rhythm, are neural oscillations in the frequency range of 8–12 Hz likely originating from the synchronous and coherent electrical activity of thalamic pacemaker cells in humans.
circadian
is a natural, internal process that regulates the sleep–wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours. It can refer to any process that originates within an organism and responds to the environment
circannual
is a biological process that occurs in living creatures over the period of approximately one year. This cycle was first discovered by Ebo Gwinner and Canadian biologist Ted Pengelley.
infradian
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Some examples of infradian rhythms in mammals include migration, hibernation, moulting and pelage growth, and reproductive behavior, all of them synchronized by internal timing mechanisms
light-dark cycle
has a powerful effect on the circadian clock, sleep, and alertness. Your body’s circadian clock responds to light, as a signal to be awake, and dark, as a signal to fall asleep. Increase your amount of light during the day to be more alert.
locus coeruleus
a small brainstem nucleus, is the primary source of the neuromodulator norepinephrine (NE) in the brain. The LC receives input from widespread brain regions, and projects throughout the forebrain, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord.
mesocorticol
is a dopaminergic pathway that connects the ventral tegmentum to the prefrontal cortex. It is one of the four major dopamine pathways in the brain.
mesolimbic
sometimes referred to as the reward pathway, is a dopaminergic pathway in the brain. The pathway connects the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain to the ventral striatum of the basal ganglia in the forebrain. The ventral striatum includes the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle.
bremer’s passive sensory theory of sleep
which dominated in the 1940/1950s, suggested that sleep occurs passively due to decreased activity of the brainstem reticular formation (Bremer, 1938; Moruzzi and Magoun, 1949
nigrostriatal
pathway is a bilateral dopaminergic pathway in the brain that connects the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) in the midbrain with the dorsal striatum (i.e., the caudate nucleus and putamen) in the forebrain.
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep is a unique phase of sleep in mammals and birds, characterized by random rapid movement of the eyes, accompanied by low muscle tone throughout the body, and the propensity of the sleeper to dream vividly.
reticular-activating system
fundamental role is regulating arousal and sleep−wake transitions. The ascending reticular activating system projects to the intralaminar nuclei of the thalami, which projects diffusely to the cerebral cortex.
-a diffuse network of nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness.
slow wave sleep
refers to phase 3 sleep, which is the deepest phase of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and is characterized by delta waves (measured by EEG). Dreaming and sleepwalking can occur during SWS. SWS is thought to be important for memory consolidation.
suprachiasmatic nucleus
each of a pair of small nuclei in the hypothalamus of the brain, above the optic chiasma, thought to be concerned with the regulation of physiological circadian rhythms.
ultradian
having a period of recurrence shorter than a day but longer than an hour.
-In chronobiology, an ultradian rhythm is a recurrent period or cycle repeated throughout a 24-hour day. In contrast, circadian rhythms complete one cycle daily, while infradian rhythms such as the human menstrual cycle have periods longer than a day
alpha=methydopamine
also known as 3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine, is a research chemical of the catecholamine and amphetamine chemical classes. Its bis-glutathionyl metabolite is slightly neurotoxic when directly injected into the brain’s ventricles.
3,4-dihydroxyphenlaline
l-DOPA, also known as levodopa and l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, is an amino acid that is made and used as part of the normal biology of some plants and animals, including humans. Humans, as well as a portion of the other animals that utilize l-DOPA, make it via biosynthesis from the amino acid l-tyrosine.
6-hydroxydopamine
is a neurotoxic synthetic organic compound used by researchers to selectively destroy dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons in the brain.
amphetamine
is a strong central nervous system stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, narcolepsy, and obesity. Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as two enantiomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.
apomorphine
Dopamine promoter
It can treat loss of muscle movement control caused by Parkinson’s disease.
butyrophenone
synthetic agents containing the phenyl-1-butanone group, most Butyrophenones are neuroleptic (antipsychotic) drugs, such as haloperidol, droperidol, or azaperone, that control schizophrenic symptoms (hallucinations, delusions, dementia).
caffeine
central nervous system stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is used as a cognitive enhancer, increasing alertness and attentional performance. Caffeine acts by blocking binding of adenosine to the adenosine A₁ receptor, which enhances release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
carbidopa
Dopamine promoter
It can treat Parkinson’s disease.
chlorpromazine
Antipsychotic
It can treat mental illness, behavioral disorders, tetanus, blood disorders such as porphyria, and severe nausea and vomiting. It can also reduce anxiety before surgery.
-The antiemetic effect of chlorpromazine stems from the combined blockade of histamine H1, dopamine D2, and muscarinic M1 receptors in the vomiting center. Chlorpromazine is extensively metabolized by the liver
clonidine
has an alpha-antagonist effect in the posterior hypothalamus and medulla. The final response is reduced sympathetic outflow from the central nervous system (CNS), which clinically causes a decrease in arterial blood pressure
clozapine
exerts its effects involves the blocking of 5-HT2A/5-HT2C serotonin receptors and the D1-4 dopamine receptors, with the highest affinity for the D4 dopamine receptor.
- helps to adjust the levels of dopamine and other chemicals available in your brain. Clozapine reduces dopamine activity where it is too high, helping with symptoms like hallucinations.
cocaine
a stimulant drug obtained from the leaves of two Coca species native to South America, Erythroxylum coca and Erythroxylum novogranatense.
- binds and blocks monoamine (dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin) and reuptake transporters with equal affinity. [3] Monoamines accumulate in the synaptic cleft resulting in enhanced and prolonged sympathetic effects
D-amphetamine
Stimulant
It can treat ADHD. It can also treat narcolepsy.
- Once inside the presynaptic terminal, amphetamine increases the amounts of monoamine neurotransmitters in the cytosol through the inhibition of vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) as well as through disruption of the electrochemical gradients necessary for vesicular transporter function.
desipramine
Antidepressant and Nerve pain medication
It can treat depression.
-enhances monoamine neurotransmission in certain areas of the brain by inhibiting the re-uptake of noradrenaline and serotonin at the noradrenergic and serotoninergic nerve endings, respectively. It also induces sedation through histamine 1 receptor blockage and hypotension through beta-adrenergic blockage.
dopa
also known as levodopa and l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, is an amino acid that is made and used as part of the normal biology of some plants and animals, including humans. Humans, as well as a portion of the other animals that utilize l-DOPA, make it via biosynthesis from the amino acid l-tyrosine.
haloperidol
Antipsychotic
It can treat certain types of mental disorders. It can also control symptoms of Tourette syndrome
- to block postsynaptic dopamine (D2) receptors in the mesolimbic system of the brain.
iproniazid
s a carbohydrazide and a member of pyridines. ChEBI. An irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase types A and B that is used as an antidepressive agent. It has also been used as an antitubercular agent, but its use is limited by its toxicity.
isoproterenol
Blood pressure support
It can treat certain types of heart problems. It can also improve breathing while a patient is under anesthesia.
-Increased heart rate. Increased heart contractility. Relaxation of bronchial, gastrointestinal, and uterine smooth muscle. Peripheral vasodilation.
L-dopa
methamphetamine
is a powerful, highly addictive stimulant that affects the central nervous system. It takes the form of a white, odorless, bitter-tasting crystalline powder that easily dissolves in water or alcohol
- affects the central nervous system (CNS) by enhancing the release of monoamine neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. [4] The use of methamphetamine can lead to many pharmacological effects because of its ability to use various molecular processes.
methylphenidate (ritalin)
Stimulant
It can treat ADHD and narcolepsy.
- non-competitively blocks the reuptake of dopamine and noradrenaline into the terminal by blocking dopamine transporter (DAT) and noradrenaline transporter (NAT), increasing levels of dopamine and noradrenaline in the synaptic cleft.
phenothiazine
is an organic compound that has the formula S(C₆H₄)₂NH and is related to the thiazine-class of heterocyclic compounds. Derivatives of phenothiazine are highly bioactive and have widespread use and rich history.
-used to treat a variety of psychiatric conditions. The mechanism of action is central and peripheral dopaminergic blockade. Many of the phenothiazines have anticholinergic, α receptor-blocking, sodium channel-blocking, and potassium channel-blocking properties.
phenylephrine
Decongestant and Vasoconstrictor
It can treat stuffy nose, sinus problems, and hemorrhoids. When applied to the eye, it can treat uveitis and wide-angle glaucoma. It can also dilate the pupil of the eye.
- an agonist of α1-adrenoceptors. Nasal decongestant action is mediated by activation of α1-adrenoceptors in the arterioles of the nasal mucosa. This causes vasoconstriction, which leads to decreased edema and increased drainage of the sinus cavities.
propanolol
Beta blocker
It can treat high blood pressure, chest pain (angina), and uneven heartbeat (atrial fibrillation). It can also treat tremors and proliferating infantile hemangioma. In addition, it can prevent migraine headaches.
reserpine
irreversibly blocks VMAT-2 (vesicular monoamine transporter-2) in the adrenergic neurotransmission pathway. [8] The inhibition of catecholamine pumps results in blockage of the uptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine into presynaptic storage vesicles.
theobromate
which is found in higher amounts than caffeine, seems to be behind several effects attributed to cocoa intake. The main mechanisms of action are inhibition of phosphodiesterases and blockade of adenosine receptors
theophylline
Bronchodilator
It can treat asthma and other lung problems, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
- relaxes the smooth muscles located in the bronchial airways and pulmonary blood vessels. It also reduces the airway responsiveness to histamine, adenosine, methacholine, and allergens.
thioxanthene
is a chemical compound in which the oxygen atom in xanthene is replaced with a sulfur atom. It is also related to phenothiazine. Several of its derivatives are used as typical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia and other psychoses.
- work primarily by blocking postsynaptic dopamine-mediated neurotransmission by binding to dopamine (DA-1 and DA-2) receptors.
tyramine
is an amino acid that helps regulate blood pressure. It occurs naturally in the body, and it’s found in certain foods. Medications called monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) block monoamine oxidase, which is an enzyme that breaks down excess tyramine in the body.
tyrosine hydroxylase
takes part in the first step of the pathway that produces a group of hormones called catecholamines. This enzyme helps convert the protein building block (amino acid) tyrosine to a catecholamine called dopamine.
what is a biological rhythm?
is a phrase often used interchangeably with circadian rhythm. These rhythms are a series of bodily functions regulated by your internal clock. They control cycles like sleep and wakefulness, body temperature, hormone secretion, and more
what is the most common biological rhythm and what is it due to?
The main biological rhythm most people are concerned with is the diurnal sleep-wake cycle. It is the most obvious cycle you deal with on a regular basis. It has a powerful impact on your health. During the day as you experience light cues, your SNC sends signals of alertness to tell your body it’s time to be awake
discuss the body’s major biological clock
The master circadian clock in the brain (see Figure 2) synchronizes and controls these cycles so they work together. The circadian clock has an internally driven 24-hour rhythm that tends to run longer than 24 hours but resets every day by the sun’s light/dark cycle.
describe the continuum of states of arousal from coma to mania
What types of neural structures and systems account for different levels and periodicity
of arousal?
the autonomic nervous system
Introduction. The primary function of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is to regulate homeostatic processes involved in arousal states.
Discuss physiological measures of arousal.
Measures of arousal may be classified in terms of this psychological spectrum. At the shortest intervals are measures that include indices of cortical activity such as the EEG, both event related and resting frequency. At somewhat longer intervals are the autonomic measures of Skin Conductance (SC) and Heart Rate (HR).
Describe the EEG during sleep and wakefulness.
Describe the major characteristics of the catecholamine systems in the brain.
A type of neurohormone (a chemical that is made by nerve cells and used to send signals to other cells). Catecholamines are important in stress responses. High levels cause high blood pressure which can lead to headaches, sweating, pounding of the heart, pain in the chest, and anxiety.
Describe the synthesis of catecholamines.
a biochemical pathway used to produce dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. This process takes place in the adrenal medulla as well as the post-ganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system. The pathway begins with phenylalanine, which is converted into tyrosine.
How are the actions of catecholamines terminated?
released into the synaptic cleft are terminated very rapidly by uptake back into the sympathetic nerve endings and effector cells with some conversion to inactive metabolites.
What are the types of adrenergic/noradrenergic receptors?
otherwise known as adreno-receptors, are classified as either alpha or beta receptors. Those two classes are further subdivided into alpha-1, alpha-2, beta-1, beta-2, and beta-3. Alpha-1 and alpha-2 receptors both have three subtypes. These receptors are all G-protein-coupled receptors
What is the function of the locus coeruleus?
to regulate the amount of noradrenaline in the forebrain. Thus, at a behavioral or systems level, the function of the locus coeruleus critically depends upon the dynamic interaction between the released noradrenaline and neuronal activity in its multiple target areas
identify four major dopamine pathways in the brain.
in the brain include the nigrostriatal, mesolimbic, mesocortical and tuberoinfundibular systems that play vital roles in the regulation of many important physiological functions.
What happens when the nigrostriatal pathway is lesioned on one side of the
brain and stimulated with amphetamine or with apomorphine? Why?
is to influence voluntary movement through basal ganglia motor loops. Along with the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic pathways, the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway can also influence other brain functions, including cognition, reward, and addiction.
Describe the three major actions of cocaine.
increases levels of the natural chemical messenger dopamine in brain circuits controlling pleasure and movement. Normally, the brain releases dopamine in these circuits in response to potential rewards, like the smell of good food.
Describe the behavioral states that are observed in high-dose amphetamine
users.
widespread and associated with significant impact on cardiovascular and neurological systems in overdose.
-include increased alertness, hyperthermia, decreased appetite, and euphoria. However, long-term abuse can result in neurotoxicity and psychosis.
Describe the effects of amphetamine on neurotransmission and
neurotransmitters.
inhibit all presynaptic monoamine transporters causing an increase in dopamine, serotonin, and NA. In addition, amphetamines inhibit monoamine oxidases, the enzymes responsible for the breakdown of these neurotransmitters.
How do the CNS stimulant actions of caffeine differ from those of amphetamine and cocaine?
Caffeine’s psychomotor-reinforcing effects and hyperarousal are the result of the antagonism of central A1 and A2A adenosine receptors. Compared to classical psychostimulants such as cocaine and amphetamine, caffeine has comparatively less augmentation effect on dopaminergic and catecholaminergic neurotransmission.
What are some of the statistics that are relevant to the health effects of
cigarettes?
Are cigarettes addictive or are they merely habit forming?
Yes. Most smokers use tobacco regularly because they are addicted to nicotine. Addiction is characterized by compulsive drug-seeking and use, even in the face of negative health consequences. The majority of smokers would like to stop smoking, and each year about half try to quit permanently.M
What are the clinical uses and limitations of nicotine replacement devices?
How might their efficacy be boosted?
Nicotine replacement.
Using nicotine replacement doubles the quit-rate. It helps with withdrawal symptoms and cravings, and can be tapered off easily as withdrawal symptoms improve. There are many forms available over-the-counter or with prescription: patches, gum, lozenges, nasal spray, and inhaler.
Describe the mechanism of action of caffeine.
increases intracellular concentrations of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) by inhibiting phosphodiesterase enzymes in skeletal muscle and adipose tissues. These actions promote lipolysis via the activation of hormone-sensitive lipases with the release of free fatty acids and glycerol.
Discuss the effects of caffeine on the cardiovascular system.
Short-term metabolic studies found that caffeine ingestion acutely induces cardiac arrhythmias and increases plasma renin activity, catecholamine concentrations, and blood pressure
