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BIO 207- Human Physiology > Exam 2- Chapter 13 > Flashcards

Exam 2- Chapter 13 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are 3 functions of the circulatory system?

A
  1. Transportation
  2. Regulation
  3. Protection
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2
Q

What does the circulatory system transport?

A

Respiratory gases, nutrients, and wastes

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3
Q

What does the circulatory system regulate?

A

Hormones and temperature

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4
Q

How does the circulatory system protect?

A

Clotting and immune

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5
Q

What are the 2 components of the circulatory system?

A
  1. Cardiovascular system

2. Lymphatic system

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6
Q

What are the 2 parts to the cardiovascular system?

A
  1. Heart

2. Blood vessels (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins)

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7
Q

What are 3 components to the lymphatic system?

A
  1. Lymphatic vessels
  2. Lymphoid tissues
  3. Lymphatic organs (spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes)
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8
Q

When talking about the composition of blood, what are the 4 components?

A
  1. Plasma
  2. Erythrocytes
  3. Leukocytes
  4. Platelets (thrombocytes)
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9
Q

Describe the plasma component of blood?

A

Fluid part of the blood

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10
Q

What is contained within the plasma component of the blood?

A
  1. Plasma proteins

2. Serum

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11
Q

What are 2 types of plasma proteins?

A
  1. Albumin

2. Globulins

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12
Q

What is albumin?

A

type of plasma protein; creates osmotic pressure to help draw water from tissues into capillaries to maintain blood volume and pressure

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13
Q

What are globulins?

A

type of plasma protein; some carry lipids

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14
Q

What are gamma globulins?

A

specialized globulin; antibodies

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15
Q

What is fribrinogen?

A

type of gamma globulin; helps in clotting after becoming fibrin

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16
Q

What do erythrocytes carry?

A

Oxygen

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17
Q

What “standard” cellular structures do erythrocytes lack?

A
  1. Nuclei

2. Mitochondria

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18
Q

What is the life span of a erythrocyte?

A

120 days

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19
Q

What 2 substances do erythrocytes carry?

A
  1. Hemoglobin

2. Transferrin

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20
Q

Unlike erythrocytes, what “standard” cellular structures do leukocytes contain?

A
  1. Nuclei

2. Mitochondria

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21
Q

What are considered granular leukocytes?

A
  1. Neutrophils
  2. Eosinophils
  3. Basophils
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22
Q

What are considered aggranular leukocytes?

A
  1. Monocytes

2. Lymphocytes

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23
Q

What “standard” cellular structure do platelets (thrombocytes) lack?

A

Nuclei

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24
Q

What is the life span of platelets (thrombocytes)?

A

Very short lives (5-9 days)

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25
Q

What is the function of platelets (thrombocytes)?

A

Clot blood

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26
Q

What do platelets (thrombocytes) need?

A

Fibrinogen

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27
Q

What is the smallest formed element in the the composition of blood?

A

platelets (thrombocytes)

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28
Q

What is hematopoiesis?

A

Process of blood cell formation

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29
Q

What are the two types of hematopoiesis we will be talking about?

A
  1. Leukopoiesis

2. Erythropoiesis

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30
Q

What is leukopoiesis?

A

process of blood formation for WHITE BLOOD CELLS

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31
Q

What two structures are involved in leukopoiesis?

A
  1. Red bone marrow

2. Lymphoid tissue

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32
Q

What does leukopoiesis regulate?

A

Cytokine regulation

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33
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

process of blood formation for RED BLOOD CELLS

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34
Q

In erythropoiesis, what initiates erythropoietin? What is it secreted by?

A
  1. Low oxygen levels

2. The kidneys

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35
Q

Where are/What are antigens?

A

found on the surface of cells to help immune system recognize self cells

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36
Q

What are antibodies secreted by? Why?

A
  1. Lymphocytes

2. To respond to foreign cells

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37
Q

What is the ABO system?

A

Antigens on erythrocyte cell surfaces

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38
Q

What are the 4 possibilities of the ABO system?

A
  1. Type A
  2. Type B
  3. Type AB
  4. Type O
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39
Q

What antigen does type A blood have?

A

Has the A antigen

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40
Q

What antigen does type B blood have?

A

Has the B antigen

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41
Q

What antigen does type AB blood have?

A

Has both the A and B antigens

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42
Q

What antigen does type O blood have?

A

Has neither the A nor the B antigen

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43
Q

In a transfusion reaction what type of antibodies does a patient have?

A

antibodies against antigens he does not have

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44
Q

What type of antibodies does type A blood have?

A

Has the anti-B antibody

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45
Q

What type of antibodies does type B blood have?

A

Has the anti-A antibody

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46
Q

What type of antibodies does type AB blood have?

A

Has nether the anti-A nor anti-B antibody

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47
Q

What type of antibodies does type O blood have?

A

Has the anti-A and anti-B antibody

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48
Q

In a transfusion reaction, what happens if a person receives the wrong blood type?

A

antibodies bind to erythrocytes and cause agglutination.

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49
Q

What can agglutination be used for?

A

blood typing

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50
Q

What is the Rh factor?

A

It is antigen D

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51
Q

If a person does have an Rh factor (antigen D), is the person RH positive or negative?

A

Rh Posiitve

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52
Q

If a person does not have an Rh factor (antigen D), is the person RH positive or negative?

A

Rh negative

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53
Q

What is an issue with pregnancy and Rh factor?

A

An Rh− mother exposed to Rh+ fetal blood produces antibodies. This may cause erythroblastosis fetalis in future pregnancies as antibodies cross the placenta and attack fetal RBCs

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54
Q

Blood clotting: What is hemostasis?

A

cessation of bleeding when a blood vessel is damaged

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55
Q

Damage exposes collagen fibers to blood. What 3 things does the produce?

A
  1. Vasoconstriction
  2. Formation of platelet plug
  3. Formation of fibrin protein web
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56
Q

Blood clotting- Vessel Walls: What does intact endothelium secrete?

A
  1. Prostacyclin
  2. Nitric oxide
  3. CD39
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57
Q

Intact endothelium secretes prostacyclin and nitric oxide, which do what 2 things?

A
  1. Vasodilate

2. Inhibit platelet aggregation

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58
Q

Intact endothelium also secretes CD39, which does what?

A

Breaks down ADP into AMP and Pi to inhibit platelet aggregation further

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59
Q

Blood clotting- Platelets: Damaged endothelium exposes collagen. What 3 things then happen?

A
  1. Platelets bind to collagen.
  2. Von Willebrand factor holds them there.
  3. Platelets recruit more platelets and form a platelet plug by secreting substances
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60
Q

What substances do platelets secrete to help form a platelet plug?

A
  1. ADP (sticky platelets)
  2. Serotonin (vasoconstriction)
  3. Thromboxane A (sticky platelets and vasoconstriction)
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61
Q

Blood Clotting- Fibrin: How many different pathways convert fibrinogen to fibrin? Name them

A

2:

  1. Intrinsic
  2. Extrinsic
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62
Q

Which pathway of fibrinogen to fibrin is vitamin K needed for?

A

BOTH

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63
Q

Describe the intrinsic pathway of converting fibrinogen to fibrin.

A
  1. Activated by exposure to collagen
  2. Factor XII activates a cascade of other blood factor
  3. Calcium and phospholipids (from the platelets) convert prothrombin to the active enzyme thrombin, which converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
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64
Q

What is the extrinsic pathway of converting fibrinogen to fibrin initiated by?

A

Initiated by tissue factor (factor III)

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65
Q

Which pathway of fibrinogen to fibrin is a more direct pathway?

A

Extrinsic pathway

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66
Q

Can clotting be prevented with drugs?

A

YES

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67
Q

What drugs can prevent clotting?

A
  1. Calcium chelators
  2. Heparin
  3. Coumarin
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68
Q

How do calcium chelators prevent blood clotting?

A

By using sodium citrate or EDTA

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69
Q

How do heparin prevent blood clotting?

A

blocks thrombin

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70
Q

How do coumarin prevent blood clotting?

A

inhibits vitamin K

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71
Q

What does the right atrium of the heart receive?

A

receives deoxygenated blood from the body

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72
Q

What does the left atrium of the heart receive?

A

receives oxygenated blood from the lungs

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73
Q

What does the right ventricle of the heart do?

A

pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

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74
Q

What does the left ventricle of the heart do?

A

pumps oxygenated blood to the body

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75
Q

What does the fibrous skeleton of the heart separate? What does this allow for?

A
  1. Separates atria from ventricles

2. The atria to work as one unit, while the ventricles work as a separate unit

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76
Q

What does the fibrous skeleton of the heart form?

A

annuli fibrosi

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77
Q

What is the function of annuli fribrosi?

A

hold in heart valves

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78
Q

What is pulmonary circulation between?

A

between heart and lungs

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79
Q

What is systemic circulation between?

A

between heart and body tissues

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80
Q

Blood pumps into the lungs via _____ ____.

A

pulmonary arteries

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81
Q

Blood returns to heart via _____ ____.

A

pulmonary veins

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82
Q

Blood pumps to body tissues via the _____.

A

aorta

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83
Q

Blood returns to heart via ____ and ____ ____ ___.

A
  1. superior
  2. Inferior
  3. venae
  4. cave
84
Q

Where are the atrioventricular valves located?

A

located between the atria and the ventricles

85
Q

What are the names of the two atrioventricular vales?

A
  1. Tricuspid valve

2. Bicuspid valve

86
Q

Where is the tricuspid valve located?

A

Between the right atrium and ventricle

87
Q

Where is the bicuspid valve located?

A

Between left atrium and ventricle

88
Q

Where are the semilunar valves located?

A

located between the ventricles and arteries leaving the heart

89
Q

What are the names of the two semilunar valves?

A
  1. Pulmonary valve

2. Aortic valve

90
Q

Where is the pulmonary valve located?

A

between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk

91
Q

Where is the aortic valve located?

A

between left ventricle and aorta

92
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

Repeating pattern of contraction and relaxation of the heart.

93
Q

In the cardiac cycle what is systole?

A

contraction of heart muscles

94
Q

In the cardiac cycle what is diastole?

A

relaxation of heart muscles

95
Q

What are the 5 steps in the cardiac cycle?

A
  1. Ventricles begin contraction, pressure rises, and AV valves close (lub).
  2. Pressure builds, semilunar valves open, and blood is ejected into arteries.
  3. Pressure in ventricles falls; semilunar valves close (dub).
  4. Pressure in ventricles falls below that of atria, and AV valve opens. Ventricles fill.
  5. Atria contract, sending last of blood to ventricles
96
Q

What are heart sounds produced by?

A

Produced by closing valves

97
Q

What is the “lub” sounds of the heart produced by? When does it occur?

A
  1. Closing of AV valves

2. Occurs at ventricular systole

98
Q

What is the “dub” sounds of the heart produced by? When does it occur?

A
  1. Closing of semilunar valves

2. Occurs at ventricular diastole

99
Q

What is a heart murmur?

A

Abnormal heart sounds produced by abnormal blood flow through heart

100
Q

What are many heart murmur’s caused by?

A

Many caused by defective heart valves

101
Q

What is mitral stenosis?

A

Type of heart murmur; mitral valve calcifies and impairs flow between left atrium and ventricle

102
Q

What can a mitral stenosis result in?

A

pulmonary hypertension

103
Q

What are incompetent valves?

A

Can result in heart murmurs; valves that do not close properly

104
Q

What can incompetent valves be due to?

A

May be due to damaged papillary muscles

105
Q

What are septal defects? What is a result of this?

A
  1. Can result in heart murmurs; Holes in interventricular or interatrial septum
  2. Blood crosses sides
106
Q

What are 3 things that can cause heart murmurs?

A
  1. Mitral stenosis
  2. Incompetent valves
  3. Septal defects
107
Q

Cardiac muscle cells are interconnected by gap junctions called ____ ____.

A

intercalated discs

108
Q

Electrical activity of the heart:

  1. Once stimulation is applied, it flows from ___ __ ___.
  2. The area of the heart that contracts from one stimulation event is called a ________.
  3. The atria and ventricles are separated electrically by the ___ ____.
A

Electrical activity of the heart:

  1. Once stimulation is applied, it flows from cell to cell.
  2. The area of the heart that contracts from one stimulation event is called a myocardium.
  3. The atria and ventricles are separated electrically by the fibrous skeleton.
109
Q

What is the sinoatrial node of the heart also known as? Where in the heart is it located?

A
  1. Pacemaker

2. Right atrium

110
Q

Describe the pacemaker potential?

A

slow, spontaneous depolarization

111
Q

When talking about the electrical activity of the heart, what happens at −40mV?

A

voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open, triggering action potential and contraction

112
Q

What happens with the opening of voltage gated K+ channels?

A

Repolarization occurs

113
Q

Cardiac muscle cells have a resting potential of what?

A

-90mV

114
Q

How are cardiac muscle cells depolarized to threshold?

A

threshold by action potentials from the SA node

115
Q

How do action potentials spread in cardiac muscles cells?

A

Action potentials spread via intercalated discs (gap junctions)

116
Q

In cardiac muscle cells what conduct stimulation to ventricles?

A

AV node at base of right atrium and bundle of His

117
Q

Where does the bundle of His divide into bundle branches?

A

In the interventricular septum

118
Q

What do the bundle branches in the interventricular septum become? What do they stimulate?

A
  1. Purkinje fibers

2. Stimulate ventricular contraction

119
Q

How fast/slow do action potentials from the SA node spread?

A

Action potentials from the SA node spread rapidly: 0.8–1.0 meters/second

120
Q

How fast/slow do action potentials from the AV node spread? What does this account for?

A
  1. At the AV node, things slow down: 0.03−0.05 m/sec

2. This accounts for half of the time delay between atrial and ventricular contraction.

121
Q

How fast/slow do action potentials from the bundle of His spread?

A

The speed picks up in the bundle of His, reaching 5 m/sec in the Purkinje fibers

122
Q

How long after the atria do the ventricles contract?

A

Ventricles contract 0.1–0.2 seconds after atria

123
Q

Why can’t the atria and ventricles sustain a contraction?

A

Because the atria and ventricles contract as single units

124
Q

How long is the refractory period of cardiac muscles cells and why?

A

Because the action potential of cardiac cells is long, they also have long refractory periods before they can contract again

125
Q

List the 6 steps to myocardial action potentials.

A
  1. Cardiac muscle cells have a resting potential of −90mV.
  2. They are depolarized to threshold by action potentials from the SA node.
  3. Action potentials spread via intercalated discs (gap junctions)
  4. AV node at base of right atrium and bundle of His conduct stimulation to ventricles
  5. In the interventricular septum, the bundle of His divides into bundle branches.
  6. Branch bundles become Purkinje fibers, which stimulate ventricular contraction.
126
Q

Describe the 4 steps in conduction of impulses.

A
  1. Action potentials from the SA node spread rapidly. (0.8–1.0 meters/second)
  2. At the AV node, things slow down (0.03−0.05 m/sec)
    - This accounts for half of the time delay between atrial and ventricular contraction.
  3. The speed picks up in the bundle of His, reaching 5 m/sec in the Purkinje fibers
  4. Ventricles contract 0.1–0.2 seconds after atria.
127
Q

What is an electrocardiogram, and how does it work?

A

This instrument records the electrical activity of the heart by picking up the movement of ions in body tissues in response to activity

128
Q

What does a P wave mean in an electrocardiogram?

A

atrial depolarization

129
Q

What does a QRS wave mean in an electrocardiogram?

A

ventricular depolarization

130
Q

What is the S-T segment in an electrocardiogram?

A

plateau phase

131
Q

What does a T wave mean in an electrocardiogram?

A

ventricular repolarization

132
Q

At what wave does the “lub” sound occur?

A

after the QRS wave

133
Q

At what wave does the “dub” sound occur?

A

beginning of the T wave

134
Q

What are the 5 types of blood vessels?

A
  1. Arteries
  2. Arterioles
  3. Capillaries
  4. Venules
  5. Veins
135
Q

The walls of arteries and veins have how many tunics, or coats?

A

3

136
Q

What are the names of the 3 tunics (coats) of the walls of arteries/veins? (from inner to outer)

A
  1. Tunica intima
  2. Tunica media
  3. Tunica externa
137
Q

What is the inner tunic layer (tunica intima) of arteries/veins composed of?

A

composed of simple squamous endothelium on a basement membrane and connective tissue

138
Q

What is the middle tunic layer (tunica media) of arteries/veins composed of?

A

composed of smooth muscle tissue

139
Q

What is the outer tunic layer (tunica externa) of arteries/veins composed of?

A

composed of connective tissue

140
Q

Where are elastic arteries located?

A

closer to the heart

141
Q

Describe elastic arteries.

A

allow stretch as blood is pumped into them and recoil when ventricles relax

142
Q

Where are muscular arteries located?

A

farther from the heart

143
Q

Describe muscular arteries.

A

have more smooth muscle in proportion to diameter; also have more resistance due to smaller lumina

144
Q

What is the diameter of arterioles?

A

20−30 µm in diameter (micrometer)

145
Q

What are the smallest blood vessels?

A

Capillaries

146
Q

What is the diameter of capillaries?

A

7−10 µm in diameter (micrometer)

147
Q

What is the structure of capillaries?

A

Single layer of simple squamous epithelium tissue in wall

148
Q

What happens in the capillaries?

A

Gases and nutrients are exchanged between the blood and tissues

149
Q

Blood flow to capillaries is regulated by what two things?

A
  1. Vasoconstriction and vasodilation of arterioles

2. Precapillary sphincters

150
Q

What are the 3 types of capillaries?

A
  1. Continous capillaries
  2. Fenestrated capillaries
  3. Discontinuous capillaries
151
Q

Continous capillaries:

  1. How are adjacent cells arranged?
  2. Where are these type of capillaries found?
A
  1. Close together
    1. Muscles
    2. Adipose Tissue
    3. CNS (add to BBB)
152
Q

Fenestrated capillaries:

  1. Structure?
  2. Where are these type of capillaries found?
A
  1. Have pores in vessel wall
    1. Kidneys
    2. Intestines
    3. Endocrine glands
153
Q

Discontinuous capillaries:

  1. How are adjacent cells arranged?
  2. Where are these type of capillaries found?
  3. What do they allow for?
A
  1. Have gaps between cells
    1. Bone marrow
    2. Liver
    3. Spleen
  3. Allow passage of proteins
154
Q

Which has higher pressure, veins or arteries?

A

Arteries

155
Q

What is the pressure of veins vs arteries?

A

Veins: 2 mmHg
Arteries: 100 mmHg

156
Q

What is the function of veins?

A

Return blood to the heart

157
Q

What are 3 ways the veins help return blood to the hear?

A
  1. Skeletal muscle pumps
  2. Venous valves
  3. Breathing
158
Q

How do skeletal muscle pumps help return blood to the heat?

A

Muscles surrounding the veins help pump blood

159
Q

How do venous valves help return blood to the heat?

A

Ensure one-directional flow of blood

160
Q

How does breathing help return blood to the heat?

A

Flattening of the diaphragm at inhalation increases abdominal cavity pressure in relation to thoracic pressure and moves blood toward heart.

161
Q

When you breathe does the diaphragm flatten or round?

A

Flatten

162
Q

What contributes to 50% of the deaths due to heart attack and stroke?

A

Atherosclerosis

163
Q

Generally, what is going on with atherosclerosis?

A

Plaques protrude into the lumen and reduce blood flow.

164
Q

What do the plaques in atherosclerosis form in response to?

A

damage done to the endothelium of a blood vessel.

165
Q

What are 4 causes for atherosclerosis?

A
  1. Smoking
  2. High blood pressure
  3. Diabetes
  4. High cholesterol
166
Q

Name the 3 steps in development of atherosclerosis.

A
  1. Lipid-filled macrophages and lymphocytes assemble at the site of damage within the tunica intima.
  2. Next, layers of smooth muscle are added.
  3. Finally, a cap of connective tissue covers the layers of smooth muscle, lipids, and cellular debris.
167
Q

What do Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) do?

A

Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) carry cholesterol to arteries

168
Q

People who consume or produce a lot of cholesterol have ____ LDLs.

A

more

169
Q

This high LDL level is associated with increased development of _______.

A

atherosclerosis

170
Q

What do High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) do?

A

carry cholesterol away from the arteries to the liver for metabolism

171
Q

What do HDLs do to defend against developing plaques?

A

takes cholesterol away from the macrophages in developing plaques because of their original function—-(carrying cholesterol away from the arteries to the liver for metabolism)

172
Q

What kind of drugs (give on example) increase HDL levels?

A

Statin drugs (e.g., Lipitor)

173
Q

What type of disease is atherosclerosis now believed to be?

A

inflammatory disease

174
Q

What is a better predictor for atherosclerosis than LDL levels?

A

C-reactive protein (a measure of inflammation)

175
Q

What may be a future treatment for atherosclerosis?

A

Antioxidants

176
Q

What is ischemia?

A

condition characterized by inadequate oxygen due to reduced blood flow

177
Q

What is the most common cause of ischemia?

A

Atherosclerosis

178
Q

What is angina pectoris?

A

The increased increased production of lactic acid and resulting pain associated with ischemia.

179
Q

With ischemia, eventually a necrosis of some areas of the heart occurs. What does this lead to?

A

myocardial infarction (heart attack)

180
Q

What does myocardial infarction mean?

A

heart attack

181
Q

How can you detect ischemia using an electrocardiogram ?

A

Depression of the S-T segment of an electrocardiogram

182
Q

What is another way to detect ischemia besides using an electrocardiogram?

A

Plasma concentration of blood enzymes (Creatine phosphokinase, lactate dehydrogenase, troponin I, and troponin T)

183
Q

What does a heart arrhythmia mean?

A

Abnormal heart rhythms

184
Q

What is bradycardia?

A

type of heart arrhythmia; slow heart rate, below 60 bpm

185
Q

What is tachycardia?

A

type of heart arrhythmia; fast heart rate, above 100 bpm

186
Q

When is bradycardia, and tachycardia considered normal? Not normal?

A

These heart rhythms are normal if the person is active, but not normal at rest

187
Q

What can abnormal tachycardia be due to do?

A

Abnormal tachycardia can occur due to drugs or fast ectopic pacemakers.

188
Q

What does flutter mean?

A

extremely fast (200−300 bpm) but coordinated contractions

189
Q

What does fibrillation mean?

A

uncoordinated pumping between the atria and ventricles

190
Q

When does ventricular tachycardia occur?

A

occurs when pacemakers in the ventricles make them contract out of synch with the atria

191
Q

Is ventricular tachycardia dangerous? What can it lead to?

A

This condition is very dangerous and can lead to ventricular fibrillation and sudden death.

192
Q

What are the two types of fibrillation?

A
  1. Ventricular fibrillation

2. Atrial fibrillation

193
Q

What is happening with ventricular fibrillation? How can the victim die?

A
  1. Ventricles can’t pump blood

2. Victim dies without CPR and/or electrical defibrillation to reset the heart rhythm

194
Q

What can atrial fibrillation be a result from?

A

atrial flutter

195
Q

What is going on in atrial fibrillation?

A
  1. Atrial muscles cannot effectively contract

2. AV node can’t keep pace with speed of atrial contractions, but some stimulation is passed on.

196
Q

How much does atrial fibrillation reduce cardiac output by?

A

Only reduces cardiac output by 15%

197
Q

What is atrial fibrillation associated with increased risk of?

A

Associated with increased risk of stroke and heart failure

198
Q

What are 3 functions of the lymphatic system?

A
  1. Transports excess interstitial fluid (lymph) from tissues to the veins
  2. Produces and houses lymphocytes for the immune response
  3. Transports absorbed fats from intestines to blood
199
Q

What are the two types of vessels of the lymphatic system?

A
  1. Lymphatic capillaries

2. Lymph ducts

200
Q

Which is smaller lymphatic capillaries or lymph ducts?

A

lymphatic capillaries

201
Q

Where are lymphatic capillaries found?

A

Within most organs

202
Q

What can enter lymphatic capillaries?

A
  1. Interstitial fluids
  2. Proteins
  3. Microorganisms
  4. Fats
203
Q

What are lymph ducts formed by?

A

merging capillaries

204
Q

What are lymph ducts similar in structure to?

A

veins

205
Q

Where is lymph filtered through?

A

Lymph nodes

206
Q

What are the organs of the lymphatic system?

A
  1. Tonsils
  2. Thymus
  3. Spleen
    * *Lymph nodes**
207
Q

What are the sites of lymphocyte production?

A
  1. Tonsils
  2. Thymus
  3. Spleen
    (organs of the lymphatic system besides the lymph nodes if those even count)

BIO 207- Human Physiology (13 decks)

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