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BIO 207- Human Physiology > Exam 1- Chapter 8 > Flashcards

Exam 1- Chapter 8 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the CNS composed of?

A
  1. Brain

2. Spinal cord

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2
Q

Receives _____ from sensory neurons and _____ activity of motor neurons that innervate muscles and glands

A
  1. Input

2. Directs

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3
Q

What are 2 functions of association/interneurons?

A
  1. Integrate sensory information

2. Help direct the appropriate response to maintain homeostasis and respond to the environment.

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4
Q

***** How many neurons does the adult brain have?

A

100 billion

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5
Q

***** How much does the brain weigh?

A

1.5kg (3-3.5lbs)

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6
Q

***** How much % of the total body blood flow per minute does the brain receive?

A

15%

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7
Q

***** What is neurogenesis? Where have scientist demonstrated it?

A
  1. The formation of new brain cells from stem cells

2. Hippocampus

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8
Q

What is the cerebrum derived from?

A

Telencephalon

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9
Q

What is the largest portion of the brain? How much % of the brain is this structure?

A
  1. Cerebrum

2. 80%

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10
Q

What is the cerebrum responsible for?

A

Higher mental functions

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11
Q

What are the right and left cerebral hemispheres connected internally by?

A

Corpus Callosum

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12
Q

What is the outer region of the cerebrum composed of? What underlies it?

A
  1. 2-4mm of gray matter

2. White matter

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13
Q

Raised fold on cerebrum?

A

Gyri

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14
Q

Depressed grooves that separate the cerebrum?

A

Sulci

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15
Q

Deep sulci divide the cerebrum into how many lobes?

A

5

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16
Q

What are the lobes of the cerebrum?

A
  1. Frontal
  2. Parietal
  3. Temporal
  4. Occipital
  5. Insula
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17
Q

What are the frontal and parietal lobes separated by?

A

Central sulcus

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18
Q

Where is the percentral gyrus located? What is it responsible for?

A
  1. Frontal lobe

2. Motor control

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19
Q

Where is the postcentral gyrus located? What is it responsible for?

A
  1. Parietal lobe

2. Somatesthetic sensation (coming from receptors in the skin, muscles, tendons, and joints)

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20
Q

What is the temporal lobe generally known for?

A

Auditory centers

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21
Q

What is the occipital lobe generally known to be responsible for?

A

Vision and coordination of eye movements

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22
Q

What is the insula generally known to be responsible for?

A
  1. Encoding of memory
  2. Integration of sensory information with visceral responses; receives:
    1. olfactory information
    2. gustatory information
    3. auditory information
    4. pain information
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23
Q

Where are mirror neuron found?

A

Found in frontal and parietal lobes

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24
Q

What is the function of mirror neurons?

A

integrate sensory and motor neural activity

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25
Q

Mirror neurons are connected through the ______ to _____ centers in the brain.

A
  1. Insula

2. Emotional

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26
Q

What has been known to be implicated during autism?

A

Mirror neurons

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27
Q

Mirror neurons may be involved in the ability to learn what?

A
  1. Social Skills

2. Language

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28
Q

What are 5 methods utilized with brain imagery?

A
  1. X-ray computed tomography (CT)
  2. Positron emission tomography (PET)
  3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
  4. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
  5. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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29
Q

How does X-ray computed tomography (CT) work?

A

looks at soft tissue absorption of X-rays

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30
Q

How does Positron emission tomography (PET) work?

A

radioactively labeled deoxyglucose injected into the blood; emits gamma rays in active tissues

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31
Q

What is Positron emission tomography (PET) used for?

A
  1. Used to monitor cancer

2. Used to study brain metabolism, drug distribution in the brain, and changes in blood flow following activity

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32
Q

How does Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) work?

A

Protons in tissues are aligned by powerful magnets. The chemical composition of different tissues results in differences in proton alignment.

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33
Q

How can an MRI be amplified?

A

Can be amplified using MRI contrast agents injected before imaging

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34
Q

What does an MRI show clear definition between?

A
  1. Gray matter
  2. White matter
  3. CSF
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35
Q

How does Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) work?

A

visualizes increased neuronal activity in different brain regions indirectly by looking at blood flow

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36
Q

Release of what neurotransmitter increases vasodilation of blood vessels in the area when preforming an fMRI?

A

Glutamate

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37
Q

How does Electroencephalogram (EEG) work?

A

Electrodes on the scalp detect synaptic potentials produced by cell bodies and dendrites in the cerebral cortex.

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38
Q

What four different patterns/brain waves can be detected when preforming an EEG?

A
  1. Alpha waves
  2. Beta waves
  3. Theta waves
  4. Delta waves
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39
Q

What do alpha waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?

A
  1. Active/Relaxed brain

2. Frontal/Parietal lobes

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40
Q

What do beta waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?

A
  1. Visual stimulation/Mental activity

2. Frontal lobe

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41
Q

What do theta waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?

A
  1. During sleep (REM)

2. Occipital/Temporal lobes

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42
Q

What do delta waves from an EEG indicate? Where are they seen most?

A
  1. Also seen in sleep (Non-REM stages 3/4)

2. All over cerebrum

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43
Q

What are the two recognized categories of sleep?

A
  1. REM

2. Non-REM

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44
Q

In REM sleep, what occurs? What waves are seen here?

A
  1. Dreams

2. Theta Waves

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45
Q

What is Non-REM also referred to as?

A

Resting sleep

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46
Q

How many stages is Non-REM sleep divided into? What are these waves determined by?

A
  1. 4

2. Determined by EEG waves seen

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47
Q

In Non-REM sleep, what are stages 3 and 4 referred to? What type of brain waves are they characterized by?

A
  1. Slow-wave sleep

2. Characterized by delta waves

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48
Q

Describe the sleep cycle.

A
  1. When people first fall asleep: non-REM sleep and progress through the 4 stages
  2. Ascends back UP the 4 stages of non-REM sleep to REM sleep
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49
Q

How often does the sleep cycle often repeat? How many cycles do most people go through a night?

A
  1. Every 90 minutes

2. 5

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50
Q

When you are awaken naturally, what type of sleep were you usually in?

A

REM sleep

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51
Q

What are basal nuclei? Where are they located?

A
  1. Masses of gray matter

2. Deep in the white matter of the cerebrum

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52
Q

What is corpus striatum an example of?

A

Basal Nuclei

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53
Q

What is the corpus striatum composed of?

A
  1. Caudate nucleus
  2. Lentiform nucleus
    1. Putamen
    2. Globus pallidus
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54
Q

What is the Lentiform nucleus composed of?

A
  1. Putamem

2. Globus pallidus

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55
Q

What does contralateral mean?

A

Opposite side

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56
Q

Each side of the precentral gyrus controls movements on the ________ side of the body.

A

Contralateral (opposite)

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57
Q

Somatesthetic sensation from each side of the body projects to __________ of the postcentral gyrus

A

Contralateral sides

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58
Q

Communication between the 2 sides of the cerebrum occurs through the what?

A

Corpus Callosum

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59
Q

Describe the procedure that would occur for a patient with severe epilepsy?

A

Removal of the corpus callosum

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60
Q

The right hemisphere of the cerebrum is better at what?

A
  1. Visuospacial tasks:
    1. recognizing faces
    2. composing music
    3. arranging blocks
    4. reading maps
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61
Q

The left hemisphere of the cerebrum is better at what?

A
  1. Language
  2. speech
  3. writing
  4. calculations (analytical abilities)
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62
Q

Most of the knowledge of how the brain controls language has come from what?

A

people with speech problems called aphasias

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63
Q

Speech problems can be termed as?

A

aphasias

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64
Q

What two areas are identified as important in regards to language control?

A
  1. Broca’s area

2. Wernicke’s area

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65
Q

Where is the Broca’s area located?

A

Located in left inferior frontal gyrus

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66
Q

What does the Broca’s area control?

A

Motor aspects of speech

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67
Q

What are the symptoms of Broca’s aphasia?

A

slow, poorly articulated speech

there is no impairment in understanding

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68
Q

Although the Broca’s area controls motor aspects of speech, Broca’s aphasia DOES NOT affect what?

A 
other actions of the:
1. tongue
2. lips
3. larynx 
are not affected; only the production of speech is affected
69
Q

Where is the Wernicke’s area located?

A

Located in left superior temporal gyrus

70
Q

What does the Wernicke’s area control?

A

Controls understanding of words

71
Q

Information about written words is sent to the _______ from the ______.

A
  1. Wernicke’s area

2. Occipital lobe

72
Q

What are the symptoms of Wernicke’s aphasia?

A
  1. Production of rapid speech with no meaning (called “word salad”)
  2. Language (spoken and written) comprehension is destroyed
73
Q

As a whole, what is the limbic system?

A

Group of brain regions responsible for emotional drives

74
Q

What is every area involved with the limbic system?

A 
Cerebrum:
1. Cingulate gyrus
2. Amygdala
3. Hippocampus
4. Septal nuclei
5. Anterior insula
Also from diencephalon:
7. Hypothalamus
8. Thalamus
75
Q

What emotions are controlled by the limbic system?

A
  1. Aggression
  2. Fear
  3. Hunger/Satiety
  4. Sex drive
  5. Goal-directed behaviors
76
Q

What part of the limbic system controls aggression?

A

areas in the amygdala and hypothalamus

77
Q

What part of the limbic system controls fear?

A

amygdala and hypothalamus

78
Q

What part of the limbic system controls hunger/satiety?

A

hypothalamus

79
Q

What part of the limbic system controls sex drive?

A

the whole system

80
Q

What part of the limbic system controls goal-directed behaviors?

A

hypothalamus and other regions

81
Q

What are the 2 MAIN types of memory?

A
  1. Short-term

2. Long-term

82
Q

What are the different types of long term memory?

A
  1. Non-declaritive (explicit*)

2. Declarative (implicit*)

83
Q

What is included non-declarative long term memory?

A

includes memories of simple skills and conditioning

84
Q

What is included declarative long term memory?

A

includes verbal memories

85
Q

Amnesiacs are described by having impaired ________?

A

Declarative memory

86
Q

What is the hippocampus responsible for?

A
  1. Critical for acquiring new memories

2. Consolidating short- into long-term memory

87
Q

What type of memories is the amygdala crucial for?

A

Crucial for fear memories

88
Q

Where does storage of memory occur?

A

Cerebral hemispheres

89
Q

Higher order processing and planning occur in the ________.

A

Prefrontal cortex

90
Q

Short-term memory involves a ______, when referring to synaptic changes.

A

recurrent circuit

91
Q

When talking about the recurrent circuit of short-term memory, what do the neurons do?

A

neurons synapse on each other in a circle

92
Q

What will result with the interruption of a recurrent circuit in short term memory? Is there a structural change?

A

Interruption of the circuit destroys the memory. There was no structural change.

93
Q

Long-term memory requires a relatively ________ in neuron chemical structure and synapses.

A

permanent change

94
Q

Describe Long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus.

A
  1. Synapses that are stimulated at a high frequency exhibit increased excitability
  2. In these synapses, glutamate is secreted by the presynaptic neuron
  3. The postsynaptic neuron has both AMPA and NMDA receptors for glutamate
  4. A retrograde messenger (likely NO) is released into the synapse, and the presynaptic axon is changed so that more glutamate can be released.
  5. Endocannabinoids may lift inhibition from GABA-releasing neurons on the synapse, further strengthening it.
    (Post-synaptic neuron also receive input from other presynpatic neurons (release GABA))
95
Q

In Long-term potentiation (LTP), GABA’s inihibiton is lessened by another _________ produced by the post-synaptic neuron. This retrograde messenger is?

A
  1. Retrograde messenger

2. Endocannabinoid

96
Q

Stimulation by depolarization (by glutamate) is termed _________. This may also affect LTP.

A

depolariztion-induced suppression of inhibition

97
Q

Where have neural stem cells been found in?

A

Hippocampus

98
Q

In mice, what do physical activity and an enriched environment promote?

A

Neurogenesis

99
Q

What can reduce neurogenesis?

A

Age and stress

100
Q

What is the diencephalon?

A

Part of the forebrain that includes:

  1. Epithalamus
  2. Thalamus
  3. Hypothalamus
  4. Part of the pituitary gland
101
Q

What are 2 functions of the thalamus?

A
  1. Relay center through which most sensory information is passed to the cerebrum
  2. Promotes a state of arousal from sleep and alertness
102
Q

What is contained within the epithalamus? Where exactly is this structure? What does it produce?

A
  1. Choroid Plexus

2. Pineal gland

103
Q

Where exactly is the Choroid Plexus? What does it produce?

A
  1. Over the third ventricle

2. CSF

104
Q

What hormone does the pineal gland produce? What is that hormone involved in?

A
  1. Melatonin

2. Helps regulate circadian rhythms

105
Q

What is the main general description of the function of the hypothalamus?

A

Very important for maintaining homeostasis and regulating the autonomic system

106
Q

What centers are contained within the hypothalamus?

A
  1. Hunger/satiety and thirst
  2. Regulation of body temperature
  3. Regulation of sleep and wakefulness
  4. Sexual arousal and performance
  5. Emotions of fear, anger, pain, and pleasure
  6. Control of the endocrine system
107
Q

Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) contain what, and how many? How often do those cells oscillate?

A
  1. 20,000 clock cells

2. Every 24 hours

108
Q

Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) are entrained by information about day length via what?

A

Tracts from cells in the retina

109
Q

What do Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) control?

A

Controls the secretion of melatonin from the pineal gland

110
Q

What is the midbrain also called?

A

Mesencephalon

111
Q

What is within the midbrain?

A
  1. Superior colliculi
  2. Inferior colliculi
  3. Cerebral peduncles
  4. Red nucleus
  5. Substantia nigra
112
Q

What are the superior colliculi involved in?

A

visual reflexes

113
Q

What are the inferior colliculi involved in?

A

auditory reflexes

114
Q

What is the function of the red nucleus?

A
  1. Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum

2. Involved in motor coordination

115
Q

What is the function of the substantia nigra? What system is it part of?

A
  1. Important part of the motor circuit

2. Part of the dopaminergic nigrostriatal system

116
Q

Ventral tegmental area (VTA) is part of what?

A

Part of the dopaminergic mesolimbic system that sends neurons to the limbic system and nucleus accumbens in the forebrain

117
Q

The _____ is involved in the behavioral reward system and has been implicated in addiction and psychiatric disturbances.

A

Ventral tegmental area (VTA)

118
Q

What is the hindbrain also called?

A

rhombencephalon

119
Q

What is the hindbrain/rhombencephalon composed of?

A
  1. Metencephalon

2. Myelencephalon

120
Q

What is the Metencephalon composed of?

A
  1. Pons

2. Cerebellum

121
Q

What is the myelencephalon composed of?

A

medullla oblongata

122
Q

The pons houses sensory and motor tracts heading ___/___ the _______.

A
  1. To/From

2. Spinal cord

123
Q

What 3 cranial nerves arise from the pons?

A
  1. Trigeminal
  2. Abducens
  3. Facial
  4. Vestibulocochlear nerves
124
Q

What two respiratory control centers are found within the pons?

A
  1. Apneustic

2. Pneumotaxic

125
Q

Where does the cerebellum receive input from?

A

proprioceptors in joints, tendons, and muscles

126
Q

What 2 structures does the cerebellum work with? What is their goal?

A
  1. Basal nuclei and motor cortex

2. Coordinate movement

127
Q

Describe the tract the fibers of the cerebellum take.

A

Cerebellum —-> red nucleus—–> thalamus ——> motor cortex

128
Q

The cerebellum influences motor coordination through inhibition of what?

A

inhibition on the motor cortex

129
Q

What exactly is the cerebellum needed for?

A
  1. Motor learning

2. Proper timing and force required to move limbs in a specific task

130
Q

All ascending and descending tracts between the brain and spinal cord pass through the __________.

A

Medulla Oblongata

131
Q

Tracts within the medulla oblongata cross sides in the ____.

A

Pyramids

132
Q

What cranial nerves come off the medulla oblongata?

A

Cranial nerves VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII (8-12)

133
Q

The medulla oblongata contains the nuclei required for what? What are these known as?

A
  1. Regulation of breathing and cardiovascular response

2. Vital centers

134
Q

What does the vasomotor center of the medulla oblongata control?

A

controls blood vessel diameter

135
Q

What does the cardiac center of the medulla oblongata control?

A

heart rate

136
Q

What does the rhythmicity center of the medulla oblongata do?

A

helps areas in the pons control breathing

137
Q

To fall asleep what must we tune out?

A

Sensory Stimuli

138
Q

When we awake up, what are we now alert to, that we weren’t when we were sleeping?

A

Sensory Stimuli

139
Q

To fall asleep, we must tune out sensory stimuli. When awake, we are alert to sensory stimuli. What does this depend on?

A

Activation and inhibition of the reticular activating system (RAS)

140
Q

What is included within the RAS?

A
  1. Pons

2. Reticular formation of the midbrain

141
Q

Spinal cord has outer ____ layer, and inner _______.

A
  1. White matter

2. Gray matter

142
Q

The gray matter of the spinal cord contains what?

A
  1. Left and right dorsal horn

2. Left and right ventral horn.

143
Q

What is the white matter of the spinal cord composed of?

A

ascending and descending fiber tracts

144
Q

The white matter is arranged into what? How many? What are they called?

A
  1. Columns
  2. 6
  3. Funiculi
145
Q

Ascending tracts are given the prefix _____ with a suffix that indicates___________________.

A
  1. Spino-

2. The brain region it synapses on

146
Q

Descending tracts are given the suffix_______, and the prefix indicates ______________.

A
  1. -spinal,

2. The brain region they came from

147
Q

What do ascending tracts do?

A

Convey sensory information from receptors in the skin, muscles, joints, and organs

148
Q

Where may crossover of information (contralateral) of ascending tracts occur?

A

may occur in the spinal cord or in the medulla

149
Q

What are the two major groups of the descending tracts?

A
  1. Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts

2. Extrapyramidal Tracts

150
Q

How do Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts work?

A

descend directly without synaptic interruption from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

151
Q

Cell bodies of the neurons involved in Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts are located where?

A
  1. Precentral gyrus

2. Superior frontal gyrus

152
Q

Where do most (describe the %) Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts cross sides in? What do they further descend as?

A
  1. (80%) medulla pyramids

2. Descend as lateral corticospinal tracts

153
Q

The Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tracts that do not cross sides at the medulla pyramids cross where? What do they further descend as?

A
  1. Spinal cord

2. Anterior corticospinal tracts

154
Q

How do Extrapyramidal Tracts work?

A

originate in the brain stem and are controlled by the motor circuits of the corpus striatum, substantia nigra, and thalamus

155
Q

Symptoms of parkinson disease reveal the importance of one of the descending tracts for initiating body movements, maintaining posture, and controlling facial expression? Which one?

A

Extrapyramidal Tracts

156
Q

Are cranial nerves part of the CNS or PNS?

A

PNS

157
Q

Where do cranial nerves directly arise from?

A

nuclei in the brain

158
Q

How many paris of cranial nerves are there?

A

12

159
Q

Most cranial nerves are ______ nerves.

A

Mixed

160
Q

The cranial nerves associated with vision, olfaction, and hearing are ______ only.

A

Sensory

161
Q

Cell bodies of the cranial nerves associated with vision, olfaction, and hearing located where?

A

not in the brain but in ganglia located near the sensory organ

162
Q

Are spinal nerves part of the CNS or PNS?

A

PNS

163
Q

Where do spinal nerves directly arise from?

A

Spinal Cord

164
Q

How many paris of spinal nerves are there? Break them down and give the number of each region.

A 
1. 31
2.
      1. Cervical (8)
      2. Thoracic (12)
      3. Lumbar (5)
      4. Sacral (5)
      5. Coccygeal (1)
165
Q

All spinal nerves are ____ nerves.

A

Mixed

166
Q

Where do spinal nerves separate? Into what?

A
  1. Near spinal cord
    1. Dorsal root (sensory)
    2. Ventral root (motor)
167
Q

The dorsal root of the spinal cord contains what nerve fibers?

A

Sensory nerve fibers

168
Q

The ventral root of the spinal cord contains what nerve fibers?

A

Motor nerve fibers

169
Q

Where are sensory neuron bodies housed?

A

Dorsal root ganglion

BIO 207- Human Physiology (13 decks)

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