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BIO 207- Human Physiology > Exam 1- Chapter 7 > Flashcards

Exam 1- Chapter 7 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the nervous system divided into?

A
  1. CNS

2. PNS

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2
Q

What is within the CNS?

A

Brain and Spinal cord

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3
Q

What is within the PNS?

A

Cranial and Spinal nerves

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4
Q

What are the two types of cells found within the nervous system?

A
  1. Neurons

2. Glial/Supporting Cells

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5
Q

What are the functional units of the nervous system?

A

Neurons

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6
Q

What cells in the nervous system maintain homeostasis?

A

Glial Cells

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7
Q

How much more abundant are glial cells vs. neurons?

A

5X more abundant

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8
Q

How do neurons transmit information?

A
  1. Responding to stimuli
  2. Producing and sending electrochemical impulses
  3. Releasing chemical messages
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9
Q

What are the main parts of a neuron?

A
  1. Cell Body
  2. Dendrites
  3. Axons
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10
Q

What does the cell body of a neuron contain?

A

Nucleus

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11
Q

The cell body is the ____ center and makes _____.

A
  1. Nutritional Center

2. Macromolecules

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12
Q

What are groups of cell bodies in the CNS called?

A

Nuclei

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13
Q

What are groups of cell bodies in the PNS called?

A

Ganglia

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14
Q

What is the function of the dendrites?

A

Receive information and convey it to the cell body

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15
Q

What is the function of the axons?

A

Conduct impulses away from the cell body

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16
Q

What is a bundle of axons in the CNS called?

A

Tracts

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17
Q

What is a bundle of axons in the PNS called?

A

Nerves

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18
Q

What are the 2 types of transport system axons utilize?

A
  1. Axoplasmic Flow

2. Axonal Transport

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19
Q

Which is faster, axoplasmic flow or axonal transport?

A

Axonal Transport

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20
Q

Axoplasmic flow moves ___ compounds toward ____.

A
  1. Soluble compounds

2. Nerve endings

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21
Q

How does axoplasmic flow move soluble compounds?

A

Via rhythmic contractions

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22
Q

Axonal transport moves ____ and _____ compounds ______ along _______.

A
  1. Large
  2. Insoluble
  3. Bidirectionally
  4. Microtubules
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23
Q

Which is energy dependent, axoplasmic flow or axonal transport?

A

Axonal Transport

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24
Q

What are the two types of axonal transport?

A
  1. Anterograde Transport

2. Retrograde Transport

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25
Q

Where does anterograde transport move materials?

A

Away from cell body

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26
Q

What molecular motor does anterograde transport utilize?

A

Kinesin

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27
Q

Where does retrograde transport move materials?

A

Toward cell body

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28
Q

What molecular motor does retrograde transport utilize?

A

Dynein

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29
Q

How can viruses and toxins enter the CNS?

A

Via retrograde axonal transport

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30
Q

Sensory/Afferent neurons conduct impulses _____ the CNS

A

Into

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31
Q

Motor/Efferent neurons conduct impulses _____ the CNS

A

Out

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32
Q

Where are association/interneurons located?

A

Entirely inside the CNS

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33
Q

What is the function of association/interneurons?

A

Integrate nervous system activity

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34
Q

Somatic motor nerves are responsible for what?

A
  1. Reflexes

2. Voluntary control of skeletal muscle

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35
Q

Autonomic motor nerves are responsible for what?

A

Involuntary effectors:

  1. Smooth muscle
  2. Cardiac muscle
  3. Glands
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36
Q

In a pseudounipolar neuron, the cell body sits along side of a _____ _____.

A

Single Process

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37
Q

What is an example of a pseudounipolar neuron?

A

Sensory Neurons

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38
Q

In a bipolar neuron dendrites and axons arise form ______ ends of the cells body.

A

Opposite

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39
Q

What is an example of a bipolar neuron?

A

Retinal Neurons

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40
Q

Multipolar neurons have ____ dendrites and ____ axon.

A
  1. Many

2. Axon

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41
Q

What is an example of multipolar neuron?

A

Motor neurons

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42
Q

What are the supporting/glial cells of the PNS?

A
  1. Schwann Cells

2. Satellite Cells

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43
Q

What are the supporting/glial cells of the CNS?

A
  1. Oligodendrocytes
  2. Astrocytes
  3. Microglia
  4. Ependymal Cells
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44
Q

What myelinates PNS axons?

A

Schwann Cells

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45
Q

What myelinates CNS axons?

A

Oligodendrocytes

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46
Q

What is different about myelination of axons in the PNS vs. CNS?

A

Oligodendrocytes myelinate several CNS axons at once while Schwann cells only do one at a time in the PNS

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47
Q

What do ependymal cells appear to be?

A

Neural stem cells

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48
Q

What are other glial cells involved in?

A

Nervous system maintenance

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49
Q

Describe specifically how Schwann cells myelinate axons in the PNS.

A

In PNS each Schwann cell myelinates 1mm of 1 axon by wrapping round and round axon

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50
Q

Schwann cells _____ ____ the axon.

A

Electrically Insulate

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51
Q

What is the uninsulated gap between adjacent Schwann cells called?

A

Nodes of Ranvier

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52
Q

Does axon regeneration occur much more readily in the CNS or PNS?

A

PNS

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53
Q

Why does axon regeneration occur more readily in the PNS?

A

Oligodendrocytes in the CNS produce proteins that inhibit regrowth and form glial scar tissue that blocks regrowth

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54
Q

Describe nerve regeneration in the PNS specifically.

A
  1. Axon in PNS is severed
  2. Distal part of axon degenerates
  3. Schwann cells survive and from a regeneration tube
  4. The regeneration tube releases chemicals that attract growing axon
  5. The regeneration tube guides the regrowing axon to synaptic site
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55
Q

What are 3 things important about neurotrophins?

A
  1. Promote fetal nerve growth
  2. Required for survival of many adult neurons
  3. Important for regeneration
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56
Q

What is the most abundance glial cells?

A

Astrocytes

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57
Q

What are the 5 things astrocytes are involved in?

A
  1. Buffering K+ levels
  2. Recycling neurotransmitters
  3. Regulating adult neurogenesis
  4. Releasing transmitters that regulate neuronal activity
  5. Blood brain barrier
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58
Q

What is the function of blood brain barrier?

A

Allows only certain compounds to enter the brain

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59
Q

How is the blood brain barrier formed?

A

Capillary Specializations in the brain

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60
Q

What do the capillary specializations in the brain appear to be induced by?

A

Astrocytes

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61
Q

What is the difference between the capillaries in the brain and the capillaries in the body?

A

The capillaries in the brain are not as leaky

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62
Q

What allows the capillaries in the brain to be not as leaky as the ones in the body?

A

The gaps between adjacent cells are closed by tight junctions

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63
Q

At rest, cells have an ______ internal charge, and _____ distribution of ions

A
  1. Negative

2. Unequal

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64
Q

What 3 things does the negative internal charge, and unequal distribution of ions of cells at rest result from?

A
  1. Large anions being trapped inside cell
  2. Na+/K+ pump and limited permeability keep Na+ high outside cell
  3. K+ is very permeable and is high inside cell Attracted by negative charges inside
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65
Q

What can excitable cells do? How?

A
  1. Discharge their RMP quickly

2. Rapid changes in the permeability to ions

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66
Q

Which cells in the entire body can be classified as excitable? Why do they do this?

A
  1. Neurons and muscle cells

2. To generate and conduct impulses

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67
Q

How are membrane potential changes measured?

A

by placing 1 electrode inside cell and 1 outside

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68
Q

What is another name for depolarization?

A

Hypopolarization

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69
Q

Why is depolarization called depolarization?

A

Because the potential difference becomes REDUCED(MO becomes more positive)

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70
Q

When does depolariztaion occur?

A

When MP becomes more positive

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71
Q

When does hyperpolarization occur?

A

MP becomes more negative than RMP

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72
Q

When does repolarization occur?

A

MP returns to RMP

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73
Q

In terms of excitatory and inhibitory, what is depolarization and repolarization?

A
  1. Depolarization= excitatory

2. Repolarization= inhibitory

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74
Q

How do membrane potentials occur?

A

Ions flow through membrane channels

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75
Q

Some membrane ion channels are normally ____, while some are ____.

A
  1. Open

2. Closed

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76
Q

K+ leakage channels are always _____.

A

Open

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77
Q

Closed channels have ____ ____ that can be opened

A

molecular gates

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78
Q

How are voltage-gated (VG) channels opened?

A

By depolarization

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79
Q

Does K+ have leakage or VG channels?

A

Both

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80
Q

Does Na+ have leakage or VG channels?

A

VG channels

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81
Q

In resting cells, are VG K+ and Na+ closed or open?

A

Closed

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82
Q

Is the cell more permeable to K+ or Na+? Why?

A

K+ because of leakage channels

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83
Q

What is action potential?

A

Is a wave of MP change that sweeps along the axon from soma (cell body) to synapse

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84
Q

How is the action potential wave formed?

A

formed by rapid depolarization of the membrane by Na+ influx; followed by rapid repolarization by K+ efflux

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85
Q

Broadly list the 3 steps in the mechanism of an action potential.

A
  1. Depolarization
  2. Repolarization
  3. After action potential: Na+/K+ pump
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86
Q

Describe the depolarization step in detail in regards to the mechanism of an action potential.

A
  1. Threshold occurs: VG Na+ channels open
  2. Na+ is driven inward into cell by its electrochemical gradient (this occurs via diffusion)
  3. This stimulates a positive feedback loop, ADDING to depolarization, opening even more channels
  4. Change in MP from -70mV to +30mV occurs
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87
Q

Describe the repolarization step in detail in regards to the mechanism of an action potential.

A
  1. VG Na+ channels close; VG K+ channels open
  2. Electrochemical gradient drives K+ outward of cell (also occurs via diffusion)
  3. Repolarization of axon from +30mV to -70mV occurs
88
Q

Describe what happens after the depolarization and repolarization step in detail in regards to the mechanism of an action potential.

A
  1. After an AP Na+/K+ pump occurs
    1. Extrudes 3 Na+ out of cell
    2. Recovers 2 K+ into cell
89
Q

What does depolarization and repolarization occur by?

90
Q

Does depolarization and repolarization require active transport?

91
Q

All action potentials have the same ____ or ___

A
  1. Amplitude

2. Size

92
Q

When a membrane potential reaches a threshold, an AP is ______ fired

A

Irreversibly

93
Q

Action potentials are _____ or _____

A

all or none

94
Q

What causes more action potentials to be fired?

A

Increased stimulus intensity

95
Q

Action potentials are ______ based/measured

96
Q

Can another action potential be produced during an absolute refractory period? Why?

A
  1. No

2. Because Na+ channels are inactivated

97
Q

During a relative refractory period can another action potential be produced?

A

Yes; but it must be very strong because it is hard to do

98
Q

What is open during a relative refractory period? What does this do?

A
  1. VG K+ channels

2. Makes it harder to depolarize threshold

99
Q

What do cable properties refer to?

A

Refer to how axon’s properties affect its ability to conduct current

100
Q

Cable properties include high resistance of ______.

101
Q

Resistance in cytoplasm decreases as axon diameter _____.

102
Q

The current of axons leak out through ___ ____.

A

ion channels

103
Q

Is conduction faster in an unmyelinated or myelinated axon?

A

Myelinated

104
Q

What is different in the conduction of an unmyelinated axon vs. myelinated besides speed?

A

In an unmyelinated axon, the impulse repeats all along the axon vs. a myelinated axon when the impulse only occurs in the unmyelinated portions thus speeding the conduction rate

105
Q

Ions _____ flow across the myelinated membrane of myelinated axons, thus no ____ occur under myelin, and no _____. This ___ current spread.

A
  1. can’t
  2. action potentials
  3. current leakage
  4. Increases
106
Q

Action potentials only occur at the __________ in myelinated axons.

A

Nodes of ranvier

107
Q

VG Na+ channels are located ONLY where in myelinated axons?

A

Nodes of ranvier

108
Q

In myelinated axons, the action potential skips from node to node, this is called what?

A

Saltatory Conduction

109
Q

In a synapse what is the presynaptic, and postsynaptic?

A
  1. Presynaptic: neuron

2. Postsynaptic: cell or other neuron

110
Q

A synapse is what?

A

functional connection between a neuron (presynaptic) and another cell (postsynaptic)

111
Q

What are the two types of synapses?

A
  1. Chemical

2. Electrical

112
Q

Synaptic transmission at chemical synapses occur via what?

A

Neurotransmitters (NT)

113
Q

Which is more rare in the nervous system, electrical or chemical synapses?

A

Electrical synapses are rare

114
Q

Describe electrical synapses.

A

Depolarization flows from presynaptic into postsynaptic cell through channels called gap junctions

115
Q

What are the gap junctions in electrical synapses made from?

A

Connexin proteins

116
Q

Where are connexin proteins (or electrical synapses– ppt not clear) found in?

A
  1. Smooth muscle
  2. Cardiac muscle
  3. Bran cells
  4. Glial cells
117
Q

In a chemical synapse what separates the terminal bouton of the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell/neuron?

A

Synaptic cleft

118
Q

What is stored in the synaptic vesicles?

119
Q

How does a chemical synapse occur?

A
  1. Vesicles fuse with bouton membrane

2. Release NT by exocytosis

120
Q

The amount of NT released in a chemical synapse depends on what?

A

Frequency of AP’s

121
Q

Describe in detail the steps of synaptic transmission.

A
  1. Action potential travels down axon to depolarize bouton
  2. Opens VG Ca2+ channels in bouton
  3. Ca2+ is driven in by electrochemical gradient triggering the release of NT’s via exocytosis of vesicles
  4. Neurotransmitters then diffuse across synaptic cleft
  5. NT’s bind to receptor proteins on postsynaptic membrane thus opening chemically regulated ion channels
  6. Inward diffusion of Na+ causes depolarization which cause EPSPs
  7. Hyperpolarizing channels cause IPSPs
    • Both of these affect VG channels in postsynaptic cell
  8. EPSPs and IPSP’s summate
  9. If MP in postsynaptic cell reaches threshold at the axon hillock, a new AP is generated
122
Q

Describe in detail the steps of neurotransmitter release.

A
  1. Action potentials reach the axon terminal
  2. Ca2+ enters axon terminal via voltage gated channels
  3. Ca2+ binds to sensor protein in cytoplasm
  4. Ca2+ -protein complex stimulates fusion and exocytosis of neurotransmitter
  5. Neurotransmitter is released from the vesicles into synaptic cleft
123
Q

What does EPSP stand for? Stimulate or anti-stimulate?

A
  1. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials

2. Stimulate

124
Q

What does IPSP stand for? Stimulate or anti-stimulate?

A
  1. Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

2. Anti-stimulate

125
Q

Can EPSP’s and IPSP’s summate?

126
Q

The axon hillock has many _______.

A

Voltage-gated channels

127
Q

Where do action potentials normally initiate?

A

Axon hillock

128
Q

What is the most widely used neurotransmitter?

A

Acetylcholine (ACh)

129
Q

Where is ACh used?

A
  1. Brain

2. All neuromuscular junctions

130
Q

What 2 receptor subtypes does ACh have? What can they both be?

A
  1. 1.Nicotinic
    1. Muscarinic
  2. Excitatory and Inhibitory
131
Q

What are Ligand-Gated channels?

A

Receptor and channel all-in-1

132
Q

What to Ligand-Gated channels contain?

A
  1. NT receptor site

2. Ion channel

133
Q

When do Ligand-Gated channels open?

A

When ligand (NT) binds

134
Q

What is an nicotinic ACh channel formed by?

A

5 polypeptide subunits

135
Q

2 subunits in a nicotinic Cch channel contain what?

A

ACh binding sites

136
Q

When do the 2 ACh binding subunits in a ACh channel open?

A

When 2 ACh’s bind

137
Q

What happens when 2 ACh’s bind to the 2 ACh binding subunits in a ACh channel?

A
  1. Channel opens
  2. Permits diffusion of Na+ into and K+ out of postsynaptic cell
  3. Inward flow of Na+ dominates
  4. Produces EPSP’s
138
Q

Are G Protein-Coupled Channels all in one? What does this mean?

A
  1. NO

2. NT receptor is not part of ion channel

139
Q

G Protein-Coupled Channels are a __ subunit membrane polypeptide.

140
Q

How are G Protein-Coupled Channels activated?

A

Activates ion channel indirectly through G-proteins

141
Q

In a Muscarinic ACh Channel binding of 1 ACh activated ______ which affects gated ___ channels. What does this cause?

A
  1. G-protein cascade/K+
    1. Opens some, causing hyperpolarization
      1. Closes others, causing depolarization
142
Q

What does Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) do? Where is it located?

A
  1. Inactivates ACh, terminating its action

2. Located in cleft

143
Q

In the PNS what do cholinergic neurons use as a NT?

144
Q

What are the large synapses on skeletal muscle termed?

A

termed end plates or neuromuscular junctions (NMJ)

145
Q

What are the large EPSP’s that end plates or neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) produce called? What do they cause?

A
  1. End-plate potentials
    1. Open VG channels beneath end plate
    2. Cause muscle contraction
146
Q

What blocks ACh action at the neuromuscular junction?

147
Q

What do monoamine NT’s include?

A
  1. Serotonin
  2. Norepinephrine
  3. Dopamine
148
Q

What is serotonin derived from?

A

tryptophan

149
Q

What is norepinephrine and dopamine derived from? What is this called?

A
  1. Tyrosine

2. Catecholamines

150
Q

After release monoamine NT’s are mostly inactivated by what?

A
  1. Presynaptic reuptake

2. Breakdown by monoamine oxidase (MAO)

151
Q

What are MAO inhibitors?

A

Antidepressants

152
Q

What do monoamine NT receptors activate and what do those affect?

A

G-proteins to affect ion channels

153
Q

What is serotonin involved in?

A
  1. Regulation of mood
  2. Behavior
  3. Appetite
  4. Cerebral circulation
154
Q

What NT is LSD structurally similar to?

155
Q

What does SSRI stand for? What are they?

A
  1. Serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitors

2. Antidepressants

156
Q

What are the two type of anti-depressants talked about?

A
  1. MAO inhibitors

2. SSRI’s

157
Q

What are some examples of SSRI’s?

A
  1. Prozac
  2. Zoloft
  3. Paxil
  4. Luvox
158
Q

Exactly what do SSRI’s do?

A

Block reuptake of serotonin, prolonging its action

159
Q

What are the names of the 2 major dopamine systems in the brain?

A
  1. Nigrostriatal dopamine system

2. Mesolimbic dopamine system

160
Q

Where is the Nigrostriatal dopamine system located? What is it involved in?

A
  1. Substantia nigra

2. Motor Control

161
Q

What is the Mesolimbic dopamine system involved in?

A

behavior and emotional reward

162
Q

What dopamine system do most addictions activate in?

A

Mesolimbic dopamine system

163
Q

Overactivity of the Mesolimbic dopamine system results in what condition? What is this condition treated with?

A
  1. Schizophrenia

2. Anti-dopamine drugs

164
Q

What divisions of the nervous system is norepinephrine used in?

A

CNS and PNS

165
Q

In the PNS what is norepinephrine?

A

Sympathetic NT

166
Q

In the CNS what does norepinephrine affect?

A

Affects general level of arousal

167
Q

What class of drugs stimulate norepinephrine pathways?

A

Amphetamines

168
Q

What are 5 AA NT’s?

A
  1. Glutamic Acid
  2. Aspartic Acid
  3. Glycine
  4. Strychnine
  5. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
169
Q

What is the function of glutamic and aspartic acid?

A

major CNS excitatory NTs

170
Q

Glycine is an _____ NT.

171
Q

What does glycine open? What do they do?

A

Opens Cl- channels which hyperpolarize

172
Q

What does strychnine do? Wha can it cause?

A
  1. Blocks glycine receptors

2. Spastic paralysis

173
Q

What is the most common NT in the brain?

174
Q

What does GABA do?

A

Inhibitory/opens Cl- channels

175
Q

In what disease does GABA degenerate in?

A

Huntington’s Disease

176
Q

What are polypeptide NT’s also called?

A

Neuropeptides

177
Q

Neuropeptides can cause a _____ ____ of affects.

A

Wide range

178
Q

Are neuropeptides though to open ion channels?

179
Q

Many neuropeptides are what?

A

Neuromodulators

180
Q

What are neuromodulators involved in?

A

learning and neural plasticity

181
Q

What do most neurons release?

A
  1. Classic NT

2. Polypeptide (neuropeptide) NT

182
Q

What are 8 neuropeptides?

A
  1. CCK
  2. Substance P
  3. Endorphins
  4. Enkephalins
  5. Dynorphin
  6. Naloxone
  7. Neuropeptide Y
  8. Endocannabinoids
183
Q

What does CCK do?

A

Promotes satiety following meals

184
Q

What is substance P?

185
Q

What are endorphins, enkephalins and dynorphin?

A

Endogenous opioid NTs

186
Q

What do the endogenous opioid NTs: endorphins, enkephalins and dynorphin do?

A
  1. Promote analgesia

2. Mediate many placebo affects

187
Q

What does analgesia/analgesic mean?

A

inability to feel pain

188
Q

What are the affects of the endogenous opioid NTs: endorphins, enkephalins and dynorphin blocked by?

A

Naloxone (opiate antagonist)

189
Q

What is the most common neuropeptide?

A

Neuropeptide Y

190
Q

What is the function of Neuropeptide Y?

A
  1. Inhibits glutamate in hippocampus

2. Powerful stimulator of appetite

191
Q

What are endocannabinoids similar to?

A

THC in marijuana

192
Q

What is the only lipid neurotransmitter?

A

endocannabinoids

193
Q

Are endocannabinoids stored in vesicles?

194
Q

Where are endocannabinoids produced?

A

Produced from the lipids of the plasma membrane

195
Q

Are endocannabinoids retrograde or aterograde NT’s? Why?

A
  1. Retrograde

2. Act on neuron that releases them

196
Q

What are endocannabinoids involved in?

A
  1. May be involved in learning

2. Stimulate appetite (like THC)

197
Q

What are two gaseous NT’s?

198
Q

What system to gaseous NT’s act through?

A

through cGMP second messenger system

199
Q

What does NO cause?

A

smooth muscle relaxation

200
Q

What NT does viagra increase?

201
Q

In some cases what may NO act as?

A

Retrograde NT

202
Q

Are EPSPs graded in magnitude?

203
Q

Do EPSPs have a threshold?

204
Q

Do EPSPs cause hyperpolarization or depolarization?

A

depolarization

205
Q

Can EPSPs summate?

206
Q

Do EPSPs have a refractory period?

207
Q

5 things about EPSPs? (these questions are asked separately this is a reference card)

A
  1. Graded in magnitude
  2. Have no threshold
  3. Cause depolarization
  4. Summate
  5. Have no refractory period
208
Q

Cable properties cause EPSPs to do what?

A

fade quickly over time and distance

209
Q

When does spatial summation occur?

A

takes place when EPSPs from different synapses occur in postsynaptic cell at same time

210
Q

Why does temporal summation occur?

A

because EPSPs that occur closely in time can sum before they fade

211
Q
  1. Repeated use of a synapse can_____ or ____ its ease of transmission.
  2. This is called _____ or ____.
A

1.

1. Increase 
2. Decrease  2.  
1. synaptic facilitation 
2. synaptic depression
212
Q

High frequency stimulation often causes _____ excitability

213
Q
  1. Enhanced excitability is called what?

2. What is this believed to underlie in?

A
  1. Long-term potentiation

2. Leanring

214
Q

In postsynaptic inhibition what is produced and by what? What does this do?

A
  1. GABA and glycine produce IPSPs

- IPSPs dampen EPSPs making it harder to reach threshold

215
Q

How does presynaptic inhibition occur?

A

Occurs when 1 neuron synapses onto axon or bouton of another neuron, inhibiting release of its NT

BIO 207- Human Physiology (13 decks)

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