Exam 2 ADOLESCENCE* Flashcards
What are peer groups?
-groups of people who are roughly the same age
What is one of the most important contexts in which adolescents spend time?
With peer groups
-over half their waking hours spent with peers
-ammount of time spent with peers changes over time
-their mood varies as a function of time spent
What is age grading?
The process of grouping individuals within social institutions on the basis of age.
-Educators came up with this when public school became a thing - its why we are grouped by age
What percent is Canada’s youth population today compared to 10-19 years ago?
11%
Why was there a rapid increase in the adolescent population during the 1960/70s (after ww2)?
The baby boooooooom - called it the adolescent boom
-became less in 1975
-then went up when baby boom kids started having kids
Is the size of youth population important? Why?
Yep
-bc size has implications on social services, educational programs, and health care
-impact of cohort size in the transition to adulthood
How are peer groups vital socializing agents?
bc of similarities in attitudes and behaviours among their friends (they socialize each other)
What is modernization (with peers and socialization)?
-Different ways societies are developing impacts how kids are socialized (Mead’s postfigurative, cofigurative, prefigurative cultures)
What did Margaret Mead do?
Margaret Mead (1978), the way in which young people are best socialized for adulthood depends on how fast their society is changing. In some cultures, cultural change is so slow that what a child needs to know to function as an adult changes very little over time.
(Mead’s postfigurative, cofigurative, prefigurative cultures)
What is Mead’s postfigurative culture?
Cultures in which the socialization of young people is done primarily by adults.
What is Mead’s cofigurative culture?
Cultures in which young people are socialized both by adults and by each other.
What is Mead’s prefigurative culture?
Cultures in which society is changing so quickly that adults are frequently socialized by young people, rather than the reverse.
What are three pros/cons of peers that highlight their importance?
-they can be positive or negative influences
-important source of support
-can promote risky behaviour
What is Social Learning Theory?
Adolescents develop cognitive scripts and normative beliefs through observational learning
What is the norm of reciprocity?
The belief that we should help others of they’ve helped them in the past
-plays a role in prosocial behaviours
Prosocial behaviours can be _____ through positive peer interactions.
scaffolded
What is the normal prosiciality:
Being surrounded by prosocial peers who reciprocate prosocial behaviours should increase personal willingness to help others
What can facilitate observational learning?
age-homogenous groups
(same age or close in age)
What in the classroom can increase adolescent behaviours over time? (This is a study
Classroom levels of prosocial behaviour
-Longitudinal study applied social learning theory
-each classroom is its own community
-found that youth in class communities with peers doing pro-social norms, increased their own pro-social behaviour
Talk about the experimental study of prosocial attitudes/behaviours (NOT the classroom one)
-percieved social status matters
-their question was if being around popular youth influence prosocial behaviour
-answer is duh
-measured students response to prosocial situations (like topics around fundraising)
-experimental condition was in a chat room talking about engaging in prosocial behaviours
-then reassessed their prosocial behaviours and they had increased
*for a graph about it see slide 140
What changes in the nature of adolescent peer groups vs childhood?
-the structure of peer groups changes
-frequency: ado. spend more time with peers
-ado. have less supervision
-childhood groups are more gender segregated
-childhood has smaller friend groups, ado. the ratio varies
What are cliques?
-small groups (2-12 individuals)
-based on friendships, practice social skills
-see each other more regularly
What are crowds?
-Larger more vaguely defined groups
-contribute to sense of identity
-may or may not hang out a lot
-more stereotyped - like in teen movies
What 4 things are behaviour affected by?
- high status peers: may imitate their behaviours
- social norms are established: values, expectations
- reinforcement of norms
- integrate crowd membership into identity through reinforcement of norms: gives sense of belonging
Explain crowds as reference groups?
-crowds contribute to the definition of norms and standards for such things as clothing, leisure activities, and taste in music
-provide a basis for an ados own identity
What are cliques typically composed of?
-same age
-same ethnicity
-same socioeconomic background
-same gender
What are three factors important for determining clique membership?
- orientation toward school
- orientation toward the teen culture (music, movies, clothes)
- involvement in antisocial activity
What are deviant peer groups?
Antisocial, aggressive ado. gravitate toward each other
What are gangs?
Antisocial peer groups that are identified by name and common symbols. Compared to other groups:
-more isolated from fam, more emotional and behavioural. probs
-poorer self-concept, greater psychological distress, impulsivity, psychopathic tendencies, exposure to violence
What differentiates between deviant peer groups and gangs
-both aggressive, but different predictors
-different developmental pathways
-distinction between law breaking vs. low risk risky behaviour
Are peer groups involved in the formation and maintenance of aggressive behaviours?
yaaaaaaaa
There was a study about homophobia and group maintenance of homophobia
basically homophobic name calling runs in groups
-peer groups involved in the formation and maintenance of aggressive behaviours
-agro kids are drawn to each other
What is the role of parents when it comes to their friends?
Interaction of youth individual traits -> parental involvement -> crowd affiliation -> strengthen traits
-Parents can (attempt to) channel kids towards certain peer groups
-parents tend to reward youth for traits that lead them there in the first place
-sneeky way to get them in better crowds
-monitoring who they hang out with, but its a delicate balance (Romeo and Juliet)
Group-based interventions for antisocial youth have shown iatrogenic effects (has opposite of intended effect)
-example: program for anti-social kids: put them in one group…. they will probably become anti-social, learn from + reinforce each other
-thisends up having the opposite effect than wanted
How are peers attracted to one another?
Similarity between friends
-ado. who use substances hang with peers who do it
-also if they’re hanging with peers who use substances, it may influence them to use
-peers have very strong influence
How stable are friendships over time?
Not as stable in middle school, but then stabilize later - more turbulent
What factors contribute to group friendships stability?
-Group and individual differences (same-gender, opposite-gender, boys vs girls friends, psychological adjustment
-same gender friendships are more stable than opposite
-boys are more stable
-less psychological maladjustment = more stability
What is a determinant of popularity and rejection?
-individual differences in social skills
-pop kids tend to be more socially skilled, but also vulnerable
What are two forms of popularity?
Sociometric popularity
Perceived popularity
What is sociometric popularity?
Objective popularité - how well liked you are (kind, funny, “go with the flow”)
What is perceived popularity?
-predictors change throughout ado, like have a boyfriend, play cool video games etc
-more like mean girls: high status, but not necessarily liked, maybe even feared
What type of popular is popular and aggressive and what does it look like?
-instrumental popularity/agression
-like mean girl dynamic
-using aggression to get what you want - popularity
which tends to be more popular: ado who use instrumental aggression, or reactive aggressive youth?
instrumental aggressive
Study about bullying as a strategic behaviour
Agressive victims (bully-victims who bully and get bullied) were less socially dominant, had fewer resource control and lower perceived popularity than ringleader bullies
-study categorized kids based on what kind of bully they are
What are three types of unpopular ado?
- Agressive
-reacting aggressive, fight with peers, bully - Withdrawn
-shy, anxious, anxiety around family, friendships - Aggressive-withdrawn
-unpredictable, anxiety around forming friendships
What is peer victimization and peer perpetrator?
victimization = the bullied
purpritrator = bully
What is physical victimization?
-hitting
-pushing
-verbal abuse
What is relational victimization?
-spreading rumours
-social exclusion
Patterns of victimization coincide with developmental trends in aggression (able to regulate behaviours over course of ado). What are the trends?
There’s physical and relational/verbal:
-physical increases in beginning, then declines
-verbal is “more acceptable” compared to physical
-less decline in verbal
-physical aggression has higher consequences bc more socially obvious that its bad
What is relational aggression?
Acts intended to harm another through the manipulation of his or her relationships with others, as in malicious gossip
What are gender differences in forms of peers aggression?
-Pysical aggression is higher reported in boys
-Though more frequent in girls, both enact relational aggression
-development of social cognition leads to increase in relational vict. early ado, then goes down
-they learn to be aggressive in less detectable ways
Go to slide 159 for a study and graph about aggression
What is hostile attributional bias?
The tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile.
Theories of peer victimization: causes and consequences
its difficult to determine main contributing cause idk
What are the three models of the different hypothesis for why kids are bullied?
-symptoms/deficits driven model
-victimization driven model
-transactional model
What is the symptoms/deficits driven model?
Some sort of defect that makes them easy targets of victimization (cry, anxious, act out, which leads to bullying)
What is the victimization driven model?
Youth that are victims of bullying have no deficit, but bullying may lead to mental health probs that then lead to more bullying over time
What is the transactional model?
-combo of the last two
-preexisting problems and experience of bullying makes it worse
-less opportunity to engage with peers
Go to slide 162 for visual of symptoms/deficits driven theoretical model
do it
Explain the path of hostile attribution bias (HAB). Also, is it a social-cognitive bias?
-it is a social-cognitive deficit - this leads to higher reports of bullying and the idea that everyone is you to get you
-Agressive tendances > HAB > Reactive Aggression > Retaliatory response from peers > reinforce views that environment is threatening
Explain ambiguous measures
Kid is given an ambiguous photo and they are asked what they think is happening
-if they say bullying, it may mean they have a social deficit
See slide 165 for peer victimization driven theoretical model
Explain ado with a skewed perspective (threats to safety)
-being victimized has negative consequences for youths mental health and psychological development
-perpetuates a cycle of victimization (delay developments in competence
-gradually see peers as more threatening - feel less safe
Go to slide 167 for chart of transactional theoretical model of peer victimazation
What is the cycle of peer victimization?
The transaction between both internal and environmental factors
-cumulative consequences for development stems from many interactions across multiple domains of development
victimization is a ______ problem
social
-nested in child, family, peers, and community contexts
-experiences shaped by environment (like school climate)
-can be better or worse
What are the stages of bronfenbrenners ecological systems theory
Micro
Meso
Exo
Macro
What are youth with poor peer relationships more likely to do?
-be low achievers in school
-drop out of high school
-show higher rates of delinquent behaviour
-suffer from emotional and mental health problems as adults
_______ continuity can be protective
cultural
How do cultural resurgence programs be important for indigenous youth?
-enhance resilience and wellness
-build social connections for youth
-transmit traditional traditional knowledge, skills and values
-build intergenerational knowledge relationships and social capital in the community
-lol more research needed
What is the evolution of the Canadian school system?
-Provincial departments of education in early 1900s
-Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 2008
-BC New Curriculum 2020 includes literacy foundations, and core competencies
What is the classroom climate? And how does it benefit the class?
How a class functions, expectations, use of class climate
-individual differences in achievement linked to teacher characteristics (degree of responsiveness and demandingmness)
-students also achieve more in classrooms that promote cooperation, rather than competition
There is a _____ correlation between teacher _______ and student _______ (+ talk about it a little)
Strong, expectations, performance
-accurately reflects their students abilities
-creates self-fulfilling prophecies (expect more, they learn more, expect less, they learn less)
______ ______ families are vulnerable to effects of teacher expectations
Low income
-expectations based on students ethnicity and SES
-percieved resources in schools
-ex. several American studies show black and latino students with teachers who don’t expect much of them do much worse
Explain the importance of student engagement
-students and teachers influence each other
-lots of students complain about being bored: this can provide opportunities to genuinely display competencies
-helps to assign work that is authentic: real world applications, interesting, fun, relevant
Talk about school violence in the US
-school violence reduces perceptions of safety and contributes to psychological distress
-zero tolerance policy
-disproportionately impacts minority youth
(zero tolerance = if there’s any violence at all, you’re expelled and maybe even arrested + get an official record)
What are the most effective policies when it comes to lethal school violence in the US
-limiting accesss to guns
-identifying and treating young people with mental health probs
-creating school climates here students feel responsible for each other
-kids can intervene when they see an issue
-encourage reporting
What is school connectedness related to?
Associated with positive academic and health-related outcomes
Do majority of BC youth feel connected, happy, and safe in their schools?
yep
-get along with teachers
-felt cared for by teachers
-treated fairly by school
Victims of bullying are more likely to report _______ perceptions of school climates
poorer
-consistently bullied = don’t feel part of it
-more vulnerable to gender based violences
See slide 193-195 for graphs idk
Most Canadian youth go to post secondary - what percent?
73% in 2019 (compared to 59% in 2000)
Why might post secondary rates be going up? (and mention the but)
-shift from resource-based economy to one oriented towards info and service industries (higher paying higher ed jobs) maybe
-big wage gap between earners with degrees and those without is slightly narrowing (may indicate construction and resource based industries making a recovery; also change in supply and demand (jobs more competitive)
What are characteristics of good schools
Emphasize intellectual activities
-opportunities to fairly display strengths
-challenged; critical thinking
Employ engaged teachers with enough freedom to teach
-trained in teaching ado
Well-integrated into the communities they serve
-their contributions in schools benefit the community
Composed of classrooms and schools with good climate
Explain abundance of free time for ado in contemporary society
-variability in how they spend their time, and impact on functioning
ex. schoolwork, freetime, risky behaviour
Study about free time
Well-rounded adolescents =
better adjusted but unclear
whether attributed to their
busy schedules - cause or consequence?
Explain the rise and fall of the student worker
-by 1925, most work by 15
-then education laws came in
-compulsory school became a thing
-less kids dropped out
-second half of 20th cent = work again
-bc more part time options
-part time, minimal pay needed so kids do it.
.
What are recent trends of adolescent work?
-current declines in work
-highschool commitments, more academic demands, extra curricular
-economy: resection created more competition, more ppl need work
-tech advances like phones and video games are taking up free time
-different countries have different expectations to working
What percent of kids worked a job while in school?
A third (33%) of students had
worked at a paid job during the school year which was lower than a decade earlier (41%).
-older students work more than younger
Why is ado employment interesting to researchers?
Lots of opinions about kids working teaching them to be an adult, does it interfere with school activities? substance use exposure?
-beliefe that jobs make them responsible, not necessarily true
What are the downsides to youth having a job?
-generally spend their money on random shit
-premature affluence (having all that money maybe harming their spending habits?
-ex. cannabis use?
-kids who work and don’t go to uni SMOKE weeeed - maybe bc more money to drop
-so now schools are trying to teach budget use
What is premature affluence?
Premature affluence” refers to the situation where someone, typically a teenager or young adult, has access to a significant amount of disposable income too early in life, often leading to excessive spending habits and a lack of understanding about the value of money due to not having to work hard for it.
^from the internet
What is the main issue with working while in school?
How many hours they work, not wether they have a job or not
-working 20+ hours a week may negatively impact
-intansive part time employment may increase likelihood of dropping out
What are some negative outcomes of working while in school?
-hours worked related to risk of injury
- 21h + = 28% injured
- 13-20h = 17% injured
-affects school connectedness
-work out of necessity? (refugee, low SES)
What are some main points about ado and leisure?
-adolescents spend most of their waking hours in leisure activities (western)
-better mood associated with choice of leisure butt…
Why is it difficult to study adolescents moods?
-individuals emotions change throughout the day
-can do the experience sampling method (see next card for what that is)
What is the experience sampling method?
-ask subjects how they’re feeling and what theyre doing multiple points throughout the day
Parents and adolesents are always fighting.
Truth or myth?
myth :)
unlike stereotypes, there is very little emotional distancebetween parents and adolescents
What are structured leisure activities?
School sponsored, organized activities that provide the context for much of adolescent’s extracurricular activities
-athletics are most popular
-but also music, drama, or academic clubs (science, language, math)
What are informal sports?
Sports you may do on your own, outside of school
-gym, yoga etc.
Does SES affect opportunities for structured leisure activities?
yep - less opportunities
-schools underfunded or too small or both
-parents can’t afford to send their kid around the Provence for comps
What percentage of youth participated in at least one extracurricular activity (BC)?
92%
true or false.
most adolescents feel
- close to parents
- respect parents judgement
- feel loved by parents
- respect parents as individuals
true :)
Overall, there has been a slight ________ in organized and informal sports between 2003 and 2018 (and when did it plateau?)
decline
-plateauing in 2023
What percent of BC youth meet the physical activity guidelines, and what are they?
17%, 1 hour of moderate to vigorous activity a day
What are some of the barriers that could stop a kid from participating in sports?
-lack of transportation (12%)
-affordability (9%)
-concerns about bullying (12%)
-too busy (highest - 40%)
-injured (22%)
-too anxious /depressed (17%)
-thought it was too competitive (17%)
-didnt feel welcome
-activity not available in their community
-parent wouldn’t allow them
-worried about catching something (like covid)
-worried about adult bullying them
-health needs/disability not accommodated
Students in ________ grades were less likely to participate weekly in organized sports and more likely to exercise at a gym/rec centre. Why?
higher
-bc older youth rely less on structured activity and become more independent
What percent of youth reported that they experienced barriers to engaging in extracurricular physical activity?
64%, or just under two thirds
What is structured leisure time associated with? Why?
-better academic performance, less delinquency and risk taking
-enhances psychological wellbeing and social status
-enduring effects into young adulthood
-may be due to strengthened relationships with school members (good relationships with teachers who may organize activity, and promote engagement in school, also exposes you to peers who are involved in school activities)
Why may extracurricular activities be a source of considerable stress for some kids?
-body image issues
-maybe even fat shaming from coach
-lots of pressure for high performance
-takes away from other social and school activities
Youth who work lots of hours experience a ________ in school performance, however extracurricular activities ______ school performance
decrease, increase
Are there differential effects of structured vs unstructured leisure time? What does it depend on?
yepp
-depends of family and neighbourhood characteristics
-high density of violence = high risk
-youth usually engage in risky behaviour when parents are away
What is routine activity theory?
It is used to explain variability in risky behaviours associated with unstructured leisure activities
From text:
-The combination of a lack of structure, socializing with peers, and the absence of adult supervision encourages delinquency and other problem behaviours.
-According to routine activity theory, “the less structured an activity, the more likely a person is to encounter opportunities for problem behaviour in the simple sense that he or she is not occupied doing something else”
What does promoting positive youth development call for?
Better and more readily available after-school programming for adolescence
-there are some well designed programs based on research on positive youth development, like the 5 Cs (see next slide)
What are the 5 C’s of positive youth development?
- Competence
- Confidence
- Connection
- Character
- Caring/compassion
-programs that promote these can promote positive outcomes
What do the 5 C’s provide opportunity for?
Demanding roles, meet high expectations, take responsibility for behaviours > contributing members of the group
What is new media?
Digital media typically accessed via computers, smartphones, or other Internet-based devices.
Media is shifting away from magazines and movies, to ___ ___ _____
New digital media
What does it mean that we live in a media saturated society?
-88% of Canadians rely on a smartphone for personal use
-we have access to it everywhere at all times
What percentage of youth in BC own a smartphone/tablet?
97%
What did youth use their smartphone/tablet for on their last school day?
-scrolling social media (74%)
-connecting w fam and friends (65%)
-gaming other than esports (26%)
-playing/watching esports (18%)
-watching PORN???? (5%)
-sexting (2%)
-gambling (2%)
-none of these (11%)
Go look at graph about BC youth phone use on slide 226
Basically 17 year olds are most likely to be on social media and listening to music at school (93% and 92%), 15 year olds are most likely to watch shows, movies, Youtube etc. (80%), and 13 year olds are most likely to be playing games (62%)
What may the variability in research mental health and media use be due to?
-mey depend on how much time spent
-type of media matters, who you’re using it with etc
-time spent is quite consistent in research, but not 100%
What about cognitive development and media use?
-few studies have looked at this, but remember the multitasking/attention study
-effects of pandemic? Lots of learning online, and lots of education tools came out
Have some activities been displaced by internet use?
yes
-les physical activity
-altered and impaired sleep habits
-lowered attention span
Are there some aspects of media that may be useful?
Yep, help with education tools
-kids can also go get info themselves easily
-collecting positive info can have a positive effect
-inline community for LGBTQ+
-info in safe sex
Tell me about the big study by Riehm et.al. about associations between time spent using social media and internalizing/externalizing problems
-kids who were on social media more than 3h a day are at a heightened risk for mental health issues that are internalized and externalized
is the stereotype that youth will create alot of conflict in their teenage years healthy for parents?
no ma’am
self-fulfilling prophecy can create more conflict.
Percieved conflict in parent - child relationships is most common in what domain?
personal taste
(style, dressing, music taste, ect)
personal preferences account for a lot of the differences and arguments
do parents and children usually have similar beliefs about core values (e.g., religion, work education)?
yes ma’am
What are some examples of things that parents and children fight about?
- curfew
- leisure time
- activities
- questioning boundaries of independence
- gender differences in responsibilities and treatment values
- .
Disagreements with parents - children usually stem from different perspectives on issues and violations of expectations..
what is an example?
parent jurisdiction vs. personal choice
e.g., cleaning room
- adolescents may see room as a reflection of personal choice
- outside of the jurisdiction of what parents can control
Do adolescents rebel against their parents just for the sake of rebelling?
rarely - there’s typically a logical reason for why these rebellions occur
what is parent psychological control?
manipulation of adolescents’ thoughts and feelings and restriction of their autonomy and independence through love withdrawal, ignoring, shaming or guilt induction
- basically psychological warfare
- misuse of dominance and power
- make their love conditional in order to reach some sort of behaviour from youth
does parent psychological control cause children to rebel?
yes
can contribute to oppositional defiant issues
What are some of the cascading effects (spill over effects) of psychological control on other areas of functioning
Leadbeater et al. (same with all parent psychological control cards)
- interpersonal relations
- relational victimization
– more peer bullying - aggression among peers and romantic partners
– (tend to report same behaviours in romantic relationships of emotional and physical violence).
Define parental monitoring
parents’ efforts at tracking their children’s activities and whereabouts, including setting rules about where children go and with whom.
what are the benefits of parental monitoring?
- it is protective
- limits affiliation with deviant peers (especially among high-risk youth)
- buffers against youth engaging in deviant behaviour.
what is parent knowledge?
parent’s awareness of their children’s activities.
- goes with parental monitoring
parental monitoring is most effective when it is balanced with qualities such as:
- warmth
- trust (adolescent trust)
- autonomy (where youth are more willing to share)
What did Mann et al., 2015 find was the relationship between sensation seeking, delinquency, deviant peers, and parental monitoring?
- the pathway between personality risk (sensation seeking), peer groups and delinquency is heightened in unrestrictive social environments (low parental monitoring)
- parent monitoring buffers against engaging in deviant behaviours.
- sensation seeking / deviant peers / delinquency all operate under different levels of parent monitoring (like it still happens just more or less).
- youth who have sensation seeking are more likely to report more deviant behaviours
How do parents buffer the negative effects of peer deviance?
(Mann et al., 2015)
restricting socialization, thereby reducing engagement in delinquent behaviours
what 2 things predict the highest levels of sensation-seeking and adolescent delinquency?
Mann et al.,
high peer deviance + low parental monitoring
–> high parental monitoring is a buffer
(see slide 10 if you want visual of graphs)
is adolescence a period of change and reorganization in family relationships?
yes!
describe family systems theory
relationships in families change most dramatically during times when individual family members or the family’s circumstances are changing because it is during these times that the family’s equilibrium often is upset
have to adapt to the changing needs of family members
e.g., in adolescents, if there are challenges that emerge, families have to adapt to the challenges. family unit has to adapt to the changes of the youth.
family unit changes together = family systems theory
what are 3 midlife crisis themes that are common among parents?
- increased concern about appearance
- perceptions of limited possibilities
- occupational plateau.
how can a parent’s midlife crisis affect adolescents?
- compromise mental health of parent
- influences parenting practices and can create an inability to cope with changes in adolescents’ life
what is something that impacts parents ability to cope with changes during adolescents?
parents mental health and functioning
what stage of development do parents find it the most difficult to relate to their child?
adolescents
what is a type of therapy that addresses how parent’s personal problems influence the way they are parenting their child?
family therapy
what are some parent factors that equip them to handle the changes of adolescents?
- satisfaction with marriage
- recreational activities
- satisfied with work
What is one of the biggest stressors in raising a child?
financial.
aritzia and post secondary lol
What are some factors that change family needs and functions?
- changes in economic circumstances
(taking care of their parents, and children (sandwich generation), and post-secondary - changes in family’s relationship to other social institutions (peers become more important)
- changes in family functions
(e.g., the families role during adolescence is less clear than infancy or childhood)
define familism
an orientation towards life in which the needs of the family take precedence over the individual
e.g., immigrant families place a high value on familism
what is generational dissonace?
dissonance between family expectations and youth expectations.
parents need to preserve culture and family values – may place stressors on youth for dating and peer groups.
huge source of conflict among immigrant families
stress and conflict in immigrant families depends on the extent of _____________
generational dissonace
e.g., YOU MUST DATE A CHINESE GIRL
How do changes in the balance of power transform family relationships?
shifts from an asymmetrical relationship toward a desire for more equal relationship with parents
how does puberty play a role in the transformation in family relationships?
- biological / cognitive maturation throws the family system out of balance
- (early adolescence = more disruption)
- puberty has an effect on levels of perceived closeness and physical affection. (may be a temporary dip, but rebounds later in adolescents).
how does conflict stemming from violations in expectations contribute to transformation of family relationships?
freedom vs. more control
child may enter adolescents thinking that parent might give them more freedom
parents might see it as a time to tighten the reins more than usual.
What did a longitudinal study by Tsai et al (2013) find regarding perceptions of family relationships from adolescents to young adulthood?
there is a gradual decline in the level of closeness (how close you feel to your parents) in adolescents, but then after highschool identification with family grows stronger
as adolescents mature into young adults, their identification with their family grows stronger
What did Moreira & Telzer (2015) find that family cohesion buffers against?
was it most impactful for girls or boys?
- buffers against maladjustment during challenging transitions
e.g., depression during college - most impactful for girls..
- if girls felt that they had negative family cohesion, their depressive symptoms are higher. better family relationships linked to less depressive symptoms
- for boys really no difference. aliens.
Is there gender differences between degree of closeness, types of rules and patterns of activities for boys and girls?
not really - minimal differences
gender of the ________ may be a more important influence than the gender of the ___________.
parent, youth
youth might relate differently to mothers and fathers.
gender of the parent who the adolescent interacts with is influential?
gender socialization occurs with mothers / fathers?
What did Bower-Brown (2022) find regarding gendered assumptions about parenting and the experiences of trans and non binary parents?
- parenting is influenced by intergenerational socializations of gender roles
(gendered assumptions about what moms and dads do) - trans / non binary parents navigate decision making about parental naming and identities (diverse parenting identities / don’t follow restricted norms / shows that parenting is the result of gendered norms)
parenting roles are the results of gendered socialization of mother / father… what are some examples of this?
also Bower-brown (2022)
- youth tend to be closer to, spend more time alone with, feel more comfortable talking to, and fight more with their mothers.
- fathers rely on mothers for information about child
- fathers are perceived as distant authority figures
_________ (mothers or fathers) may be sought for objective information (like homework help) but rarely sought for support or guidance (relationship problems)
fathers
time spent with ___________ (mothers or fathers) is more predictive of adolescents social competence and feelings of self worth
fathers.
are parent child influences one dirrectional, or bi-dirrectional?
its a two way street
the phone works both ways kid.
parents affect their child behaviour, but adolescent affects how their parent behaves. if parent responds in punitive harsh ways, adolescents will respond in rebellious ways, so parent makes more restrictions (vicious cycle)
How are adolescents who differ in temparment affected in different ways by the same style of parenting?
hostile parenting = more antisocial behaviour (for kids who are temparmentally more impulsive)
same parenting style can lead to anxiety and depression for kids who are more introverted.
what are three effective ways to parent?
- balance between restrictivness and autonomy
- engage in verbal give and take
- warm parent child relationship
Diana Baumrind suggested two critical aspects (dimensions) of parenting..
what are?
1) parental responsiveness
2) parental demandingness
what ethnic group is authoritative parenting most prevalent?
white
(less in black, asian, and latinx)
ethnic minority parents are often more demanding than white parents.
“Tiger mother” = may foster academic achievement but may also increase aldolescents anxiety and distress
what is parental responsiveness?
the degree to which parents respond to their child needs in an accepting, supportive manner
what is parental demandingness
the degree to which parent expects/ demands mature, responsible behaviour from the child
What are the four types of parenting styles?
-Authoritative
- Authoritarian
- Indulgent
- Indifferent
describe the authoritative parenting style
- high responsiveness
- high demandingess
- gold standard parenting style
- Warm, affectionate parenting
- firm and fair boundaries
Describe the authoritarian parenting style
- low responsiveness
- high demandingness
- high value on obedience and conformity
- my way or the high way
- rules and expectations are placed without consideration of the child’s opinions or needs
- punitive, restrictive, controlling
- underlying belief that the child has to accept without question the rules and standards set by the parent.
describe the indulgent parenting style
- high responsiveness
- low demandingness
- behave in accepting, benign and somehwat more passive way
- do what you wanna do
- no punishment
- don’t worry about the rules
- places few demands on child behaviour
- concerned with raising a happy child.
describe the indifferent parenting style
- low responsiveness
- low demandingness
- minimize the time and energy
- no structure around what children should do and should not do
- parents are disengaged
name the parenting style:
- adult centered, autocratic, rigid
- strict rules and expectations
- unilateral decision making
- little warmth or communication
- expects obedience, distrusting
- punitive punishment
- discourages open communication
authoritarian
name the parenting style:
- child centered, democratic, flexible
- established firm behavioural guidelines
- engage adolescents in decision making
- warm, accepting, involved, trusting
- monitoring
- supports assertivness, responsiveness, and self regulation
- encourages psychological autonomy
Authoritative
name the parenting style:
- adult-centered, passive, dismissing
-pose few demands on adolescent - poor or little communication
- do not monitor or supervise behavior
- detached, distant, withdrawn, absent
Indifferent
name the parenting style
- child centered, indulgent, appeasing
- no guidelines, nondirective
- avoid confrontation, rare,y discipline adolescent
- warm, accepting, nurturing
- overinvolved, blurred roles
- few rules or expectations
indulgent
How does authoritative parenting affect kids?
(how do they turn out)
- responsible
- self-assured
- creative
- intellectually curious
- socially skilled
- academically successful
How do kids turn out with authoritarian parenting styles?
- more dependant
- more passive
- less socially adept
- less self assured
- less intellectually curious
What do kids turn out like from indulgent parenting households?
- less mature
- less responsible
- more conforming to their peers
what do kids turn out like from indifferent parenting style households?
- impulsive and morel ikely to be involved in delinquent behaviour
Adults have always been worried about corruption of kids via video games. Is this proven?
not really, hard to determine cause/effect
What are three theories of impact through different mechanisms (talking about media)
1.Cultivation theory
2.Uses and gratification theory
3.Reciprocal (media practice model)
What is Cultivation Theory?
A perspective on media use that emphasizes the impact media exposure has on individuals.
-adolescents’ knowledge about the world, attitudes and values, and behavior are influenced by the content to which they are exposed.
What is Uses and gratification theory?
A perspective on media use that emphasizes the active role users play in selecting the media to which they are exposed
What is Reciprocal (media practice model)?
Combo of last 2 theories
-A perspective on media use that emphasizes the fact that adolescents not only choose what media they are exposed to but also interpret the media in ways that shape their impact.
-ex. you like country, so you like Taylor Swift - she shifts to pop, and you follow
What do these theories show?
-That it is hard to determine causation
What are three types of causation?
Hypothesized
Reverse
Spurious
What is Reverse causation?
Relationship in which the correlation between two things is due not to the first thing causing the second but to the second causing the first
What is spurious causation?
Relationship in which the correlation between two things is due to the fact that each of them is correlated with some third factor.
-like chicken and egg - which comes first?
What is hypothesized causation?
Its just causation:
The correlation between two things attributable to the effect one thing has on the other.
Theories of media influence and use:
These mechanisms increase likelihood of impact but differ with respect to causation, correlation, reverse, and spurious causation
Talk about adolescents exposure to controversial media content: sex
-shows popular among youth contain sexual content
-common sexual messages concern men seeing women as sex objects which youth can be susceptible to
-relative absence of messages concerning the possible physical consequences of sex (pregnancy, sti)
What do we have more consistent supporting evidence for: exposure to sexual media affecting kids sexual development/actions, or their attitudes, beliefs, and intentions?
attitudes beliefs and intentions (ways ppl should be treated, how you should look)
ex. appearance-focused social media and body image study
-has negative effect, especially for risky for high risk youth/those who are vulnerable (poor self esteem, maybe already have an eating disorder, or already have poor self image and social media can make it worse)
what might be labeled as authoritrian in Assian families might be better understood as protective or _______
strict affectionate
does not have same negative consequences as authoritarian
T/F
Authoritative = benefitical effects are found for all ethnic groups
true
why can conceptualizing parenting in typological ways exclude parents who are not at the more extreme ends of the prescribed dimensions be unrepresentative?
Zhang et al (2017)
it doesnt account for the differential impacts of ‘authoritarian’ parenting styles across cultures
What did Zhang et al (2017) find in their study looking at parenting styles in Chinese culture?
there may be a different parenting profile that is a subtype of the both authoritative and authoritarian style in more collectivistic cultures…
(e.g., dimensional profile of training. or tiger parenting styles)
what is one potential reason that authoritarian parenting style might not be as harmful in immigrant families
ethnic minoritiy families are more likely to live in dangerous communities. so authoritarian parenting, with its emphasis on control might not be as harmful as it is in ‘safe communities’ and even offer some benefits.
What did Zhang et al (2017) find in his study regarding outcomes of authoritative and ‘high-level undifferentiated’ parenting styles across different parenting profiles
authoritative and high level undifferentiated had similar outcomes on parenting profiles of:
- warmth
- reasoning
- independence
- achievement.
(authoritative higher in W, R, I, A)
they differed in:
- supervision
-harshness
(authoritative less harsh / supervision)
slide 9.
I’m guessing that high level undifferentiated means like high monitoring maybe?
adolescents who are permitted to assert their own opinions within a family context that is secure and loving develop: . . . ?
- higher self esteem
- more mature coping abilities.
What are adolescents who get their autonomy sqashed at risk for?
- developing feelings of depression and lower self esteem
Adolescents who do not feel connected to their families are more likely than their peers to develop ______________
behavioural problems
does sibling conflict increase or decrease as children mature from childhood to early adolescents?
increases
over the course of adolescents, sibling relationships become (3x)
- more equal but more distant
- less emotionally intense
- improves into adulthood
quality of the sibling relationship may be affected by the quality of ______________
parent-child relationship.
does the quality of adolescent-sibling relationship affect adolescent relationship with peers
yes
adolescents rate their sibling relationships similarly to those with their _________ in companionship and importance but more like _____________ with respect to power, assistance, and satisfaction with relationship
parents, friendships
emotionally charged sibling relationships are marked by conflict and rivalry, but also nurturance and support
true
what are two common sources of sibling conflict?
- invasion of the personal ( wearing their fave sweater without asking)
- and disagreements over equity and fairness (their fair share of the chores)
there are two patterns of intimacy growth for adolescents.
in _________ dyads (pairs), intimacy increases between preadolescents and middle adolescents and then declines somewhat.
in __________ dyads (pairs) pattern is the opposite. intimacy drops between preadolescent and midadolescent and then increases.
same sex
mixed-sex
(brothers and sisters grow closer than same sex dyads)
what are some ways that siblings may have different family experiences?
- treated differently by parents
- percieve similar experiences in different ways
does unequal treatment create conlfict among siblings?
yes,
but most treatment is not differential
adolescents who experience _________ rejection are more aggressive with their siblings
maternal rejection
harmony and cohesiveness in parent-adolescent relationship are associated with less
sibling conflict
and a more positive sibling relationship
children and adolescents learn about social relationships form their sibling interactions. they then bring this knowledge and experience into their _______ and __________
friendships and romantic relationships
positive sibling relationships contribute to:
- academic competence
- romantic competence
- familism
- sociabilitiy
- health
- self worth
T/F
girls with adolescent older sisters are more likely to engage in early sexual activity and to become pregnant during adolescents
true
can siblings influence eachother’s drug use, antisocial behaviour, risk taking, feelings of anxiety and thoughts of suicide?
yesss
Can differential treatment be a good thing if all siblings are treated well?
yes
leads to siblings getting along better and less rivalry
what is sibling deidentification?
trying to distinguish the self from sibling can also diminish feelings of competition
What are two types of environmental influences shared by siblings?
- shared environmental influence (factors in the environment that siblings have in common [school, house, parents]
- nonshared environmental influences (what makes siblings different [age, gender, popularity])
emotional and behavioura problems are influenced by genetic factors.. but whether or not problems actualize often depends on the _____________
enviornemtn
____________ asks to what extent a given trait is genetically vs. environmentally determined
behavioura genetics
behavioural genetics studies the interaction between ________ and ________
genes and environment
how can siblings be differentially susceptible to the environment?
the diathesis stress model
(genetic vulnerability to problems)
- does not guarantee manifestation of symptoms
- must be triggered by environment
What is differential susceptability theory?
the samegenetic factors that make someone more susceptible to stress and other toxic environmental influences also make them more easily influenced by positive contexts.
suggests that individuals vary in their sensitivity to environmental influences, meaning some people are more strongly affected by both positive and negative experiences in their environment, compared to others; essentially, some people are more “plastic” and can be significantly shaped by their surroundings, whether good or bad, while others are less susceptible to environmental changes.
there was a dramatic increase in divorce rates between what years – since then it died off
1960 -1980
lol womens rights
We know that social media has a negative effect on body image, but were still unsure about a third mechanism underneath it all…
Could be:
-photoshop, good lighting - unrealistic body expectations
-social comparisons - different SES to celebs
-depends also who you follow; are they similar to you? Post about positive things?
-lack of diverse representation (body type, race, ability/disability)
Go look at slides 232-237 there’s some charts about shit
pls
What could be a third factor beneath social media and body image that was studied but not proven?
appearance related feedback (comments on posts, likes etc) - studied but not proven?
what year did the divorce act reform ahppen?
1986
is there a lowered tendency to divorce among younger married adults compared to previous generations in Canada?
yes?
dont understand
theres a graph though, and it also shows that divorce rates are plummeting (2020), probably becasue people just arent getting married
has there been an increase in the number of single parent families with children?
yes,
but has plateaud in the last decade
used to be more mothers, but now fathers are catching up
2016 canada census reported that _____ in 10 children were living in a lone parent family, in a step family, or in a family without their parents but with grandparents, with other relatives or as foster children
3 in 10 (30%)
How could family be a third factor related to social media and body image?
-could be generational effect from moms body dissatisfaction to daughters
-maternal socialization of appearance standards
-family focus: physical activity focused could bring negative attention to body
-generational focus on body image can perpetuate
*warmth + quality of parents to youth can be negative or protective measure
*parent monitoring social media use could be a helpful buffer
about 20% of kids in 2016 and 2021 live in a one parent family
about 10% of kids in both 2016 and 2021 live in a two-parent (stepfamily)
about 70% of kids live in a two-parent family (non-stepfamily)
idk a graph
What did a study that studied quality of maternal relationships and body dissatisfaction find?
low positive relationships = strongest body dissatisfaction + social media use
high positive relationships = protective effect against body dissatisfaction and social media use
the direct effect of divorce is small – may be more due to indirect effect on: (3X)
i think that this is just talking about the ways that divorce can impact families?
- Quality of relationships with the important adults in a youth’s life matters most, not the number of parents present in the house
- Exposure to marital conflict and disorganized parenting linked to adverse outcomes (whether they split up or not)
-
Adaptation to divorce linked to adjustment
—— individual differences (early adolescence, temperament, emotional support)
What have studies found about kids who spend a lot of time playing video games?
They get into more fights and arguments with their peers
BUT:
-difficult to determine causation
-maybe violent kids are more likely to play video games?
-less causal effects on aggression, but may be more impactful at earlier points in development
what did Van Dijk et all (2020) find in a study about interparental conflict.
marital conflict is linked to emotional and behavioural problems (worse if kids are drawn into the conflict)
The impact on adjustment is a function of interparental conflict?
– e.g., parenting behaviours mediate the link between interparental conflict and child adjustment
( good parenting mediates a kid being exposed to conflict, which would affect their adjustment)
What impact may substance use present in shows, movies, and music videos have on kids?
-models risky behaviour or habits like smoking
ex. studies show that kids may be more likely to smoke if their fav actor smokes
-ads promoting alcohol and tobacco use, as well as antismoking ads, may change teens atitudes
*again, not so sure about change in behaviour though
-butt attitudes can influence behaviour so who knows
Van Dijk et al., found that interparental conflict, and a family environment that is supportive, structured, and has relationship quality has an indirect impact on what outcome for children?
internalizing problems
I think lol theres a flow chart slide 23
What is an internet addiction?
A disorder in which an individual’s use of the internet is pathological (this is just the definition of addiction in general
Van Dijk et al., 2020 found that interparental confict, that has a family environment of intrustive parenting, parent-child conflict, and parent role diffusion has a direct impact on what outcome for children?
externalizing problems
What six symptoms is addiction (specifically internet) defined by?
Smart mice tooot when confronted regulairly
- Salience: perception internet is most important
- Mood change: tend to have fluctuating mood - if on internet mood high, low when not
- Tolerance: need more + more to feel satisfied
- Withdrawal: experience negative feelings when away or not allowed
- Conflict: use creates conflict in relationships (parents, friends)
- Relapse and reinstatement: return to using after getting it under control
Why do adolescents who grow up in stepfamillies often have more problems than their peers?
due to the number of shifting family structures (there is more adjustment needed)
do the short term effects of remarriage vary across children?
yesss..
girls have more difficulty than boys; older more difficulty than children
what is the best predictor of outcomes for children adjusting to remarriage?
- the nature of the relationship between children and their noncustodial parent
(the parent who does not have primary physical custody of their child)
is it easy to generalize about the effects of divorce, singe parenthood and remarriage?
nope..
there are not very many direct effects, but lots of indirect effects
has the percentage of poverty increased or declined in Canada?
declined (yay)
8% in 2020, 15% in 2015
the greatest decline seen in children. may be attributed to policies?
(CCB and pandemic relief)?
Problematic reliance on social media and internet linked with ______ and ______ symptoms (dependance and addiction)
depression, anxious
more social media = more anxiety and depression
one parent families with young children are almost _____ times more likely to experience poverty than couples with children of the same age
5 times.
poverty rate for one-parent families headed by a woman with a child was 31%
Being the victim of cyberbullying may do what?
May worsen effects of internet dependancy on mental health
-may have a negative affect on self concept
Adolescents living in conditions of poverty have a greater risk of whhat
psychological difficulties and behavioural problems
can financial strain compromise supportive practices
yes
Among those aged 12-17, rates of cyber bullying increase with age, rising from ___% at age 12 to ___% by age 17 (go look at slide 242)
20%, 27%
economic stress and poverty can lead to exposure to adversities (like violence), this contributes to __________
maladjustment
Economic strain affects adolescent adustment via several pathways
there’s a flow chart. p. 26
family income + unstable work + debts to assess + income loss
all create –> Family economic pressure
which creates –> Father’s depressed mood, and Mother’s depressed mood
which leads to –> Marital conflict
which can lead to –> poor parenting
which leads to –> adolescent difficulties
Go look at slide 243
What effect may internet dependancy have on the effects of cyberbullying
More dependancy on the internet may result in higher levels of anxiety and depression when cyberbullies
-maybe someone less attached to the internet wouldn’t be as affected by cyber bullying
-I wrote this but idk what it means: being bullied online = attack on yourself lol
How do adolescents ajust to adoption?
mixed findings
- adopted individuals show relatively higher rates of delinquency, substance use, psychological difficulties, and poorer school performances..
but the magnitudes of differences are very small when SES controlled?
–> like if they are raised rich then not as many problems?
lolol is there any evidence that children or adolescents with queer parents are psychologically different than those with straight parents?
YA
(psyyyycccccchhhhh)
what are some reasons that adolescents who have spent extensive time in forster care at increased risk for emotional and behavioural problems?
- abuse or neglect that necessitated their placement in foster care
- instability of home environment
What percent of BC youth reported sexting on their most recent school day?
5%
are adolescens who feel that their arents or guardients are “there” for them (caring, involved, accepting), healthier, happier, and more competent than their peers?
lol ya
fun faaaact:
despite frowing importance of peers, adolescents still need love and support from adults who care about them
crazy
What percent of BC youth report watching porn on their device on their most recent school day?
12%
-these kids are more likely to engage in sexting (21% vs 3%)
-older kids tend to sext + porn more
General eduacation is needed regarding safety but less research/evaluation of programs (not enough research)
idk just something she said
It is important to keep in mind that what takes place in the classroom is
influenced by the way in which the
school is organized, and that the way in which the school is organized is
influenced by the needs and demands of
the community.
Remember bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory: Child>classroom>school>community
The rise in secondary education was the result of several historical and social trends that converged at the turn of the twentieth century. What were they?
-Industrialization: created a lot of jobs, introduced child labour laws that kept children from working in factories. Offered youth more time at home. Education laws put youth in mandatory schooling
-Urbanization: ?
-Immigration: more people competing form jobs, more need for social control as well
What did social reformers envision education to do?
-a means of improving the lives of the poor and working class
-way for social control to try and give everyone an equal opportunity for equal progress - universal schooling system for equal exposure
What is comprehensive high school?
Modern educational system designed to meet the needs of a diverse population of adolescents
-prep for post-secondary, and training for work force right after
Americal evolution of the education system: what happened in the 1950s and 70s?
1950s: focus on intellectual training
-math + science
1970s: focus on real world experience
-career development and work-study programs
American evolution of the education system: what happened in the 1990s?
Focus on fixing social problems
-targeted for preventative interventions
-targented violence, juvenile delinquency, there was more HIV so public health systems targeted schools to try out interventions
-greater focus on social-emotional learning: curriculum that helps you better prep from mental health challenges (ex. how to foster peer relationships)
What did rising concerns about inability to compete for high-skills jobs lead to in 2002?
No Child Left Behind Act
What is the No Child Left Behind Act?
Mandates all states ensure that all students, regardless of economic circumstances, achieve academic proficiency on standardized annual tests
What were the problems with the No Child Left Behind Act?
Lots:
-some schools artificially inflated their test scores; taught kids how to do well on a test, but didn’t teach them how to do well in a range of topics. If there were subjects that weren’t on the test, it waste taught
-impacted schools with not enough resources: also would lose funding if grades too low
-dispairity between high/low performing students: had to cut corners pushing low achieving students out of schools, and encouraging low performing students to be absent on test days
-effects on quality of teaching: just taught for the test, not purpose on knowledge. Underfunded or cutting subjects no on the test
-average scores not representative of the range: excluding or not revealing the huge gap between high performing and under performing students
What did the Obama admin do in an attempt to fix many of the initial problems?
-stressed the need to have high standards for all students
-proposed a common set of standards across all 50 states
-schools encouraged to develop better ways of evaluation
-accountability for teacher training - tried to help teachers improve their classroom skills
*didnt alter school performance for low SES
What did the Trump (BOOOOOOO) admin do to schools?
-encouraged competition, choice in schools ex. voucher plan:essentially privatizing, and drains money from public schools, creates more inequality
-secretary of education: conventional, private, religious schools compete for students?
-now proposing to dismantle fed DOE
-now that he’s back the voucher programs are back again, dismantling federal department for education
What did the Biden admin do with schools?
-pandemic-related impacts on schools
-reverse voucher plan to better fund public schools
-most of his fundings tried to divert from trumps, and put money back into public schools
Does Canada rank high among other nations?
YAAA
-scoring consistently above average on academic indicators (ranked 8th/9th out of 80 on math, reading, science)
What formats does Canada offer schools?
Public, private, boarding, all girls/boys, catholic, christian
-curriculums pretty homo, but some differences
What are some differences in educational policies in Canada?
-Quebec goes to grade 11, college in grade 12, prep year to bridge between high school and post-secondary (Quebec 7-11, CEGEP
-BC focuses on literacy and math skills, indigenous perspectives and knowledge in everyday teaching, value diversity like adapted programs infused into the curriculum
The evolution of Canadian school systems were highly influenced by ____ and _____ ____
geography, population size
-affected funding, ex. Quebec and Ontario had more resources, so education happened earlier
When was the first national school system?
1950s when Canada was moving towards Confederation
-nation wide school tax funded system. proposal for universal education system.
-efforts to unify Canada, civil war in US
-there were rebellions between upper and lower Canada, and social reformers saw the universal school system as an opportunity to ease unrest
When were the first church-run residential schools, federal schools, and when did the last school close?
Church-run: 1830s
Federal: 1880s
Last: 1997
What was the fucked up purpose of residential schools?
To educate and control indigenous youth to assimilate to Canadian society
-seperated from families
-impacts lasting to today
-eradicated culture, language.. kids were forbidden to wear traditional clothing, language, ceremony
-staff would refer to children as numbers.
-kids forced to maintain school buildings
What is eroding cultural identity?
Trauma through historical oppression passed down through generations
What happened to kids identities when they were forced into residential schools?
-stripped of identity: adolescent period of time where identity is supposed to emerge - but in a residential school there is no opportunity for this
Parenting models in residential schools were based on punishment, abuse, coercion, and control so….
there was no model of a nurturing environment
-When kids left institutions and went home, the impact damaged their parenting models
-contributing to intergenerational trauma
What percent of kids age 0-14 are indigenous? What percent of kids in foster care are indigenous?
7.7% of kids are indigenous, 53.8% of kids in foster care are indigenous
What are three plausible mechanisms, and three examples for each for pathways that could lead to intergenetrational trauma related to residential schools?
- Biological pathways: epigenetic changes like HPA axis arousal, coping, stable maladaptive
- psycho-social patways: parenting, trauma-based symptoms, isolation
- community pathways: oppression, cultural discontinuity, structural resources
what is a machiavellian bully?
highly competent bullies who can engage in prosocial behaviour and aggressive
- they are bistrategic controllers
- able to maximize resource control and perceived popularity
- instrumental agression
