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Tissue Biology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Cartilage

A

-very Firm gel
- 3 components: ground substance, fibers, ECM
- varies dependent on the ECM

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2
Q

Chondroblast

A
  • secretes the ground substance and the fibers
  • cells become surrounded by the ECM they produce
  • synthetic cell= make cartilaginous matrix
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3
Q

Chondrocytes

A
  • chondroblasts trapped in the ECM
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4
Q

Lacuna(e)

A
  • small spaces within the ECM where a cell resides
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5
Q

Perichondrium

A
  • outer structure made of dense CT
  • has cells that look like fibroblasts
  • innermost layer of these cells can form chrondroblasts
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6
Q

Appositional growth

A
  • cartilaginous matrix that gets added on the previous surface of the cartilage
    > cartilage gets larger on the outside
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7
Q

Interstitial growth

A
  • involves cells in the core of cartilage-> cells become active again, divide, and form chondroblasts which form matrix in the core of the cartilage and displaces the older matrix
    >growth from the inside
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8
Q

Hyaline cartilage

A
  • most abundant type of cartilage
  • surfaces of long bones that make a joint-> ends of long bones
  • found in joints, trachea, nose, etc
  • in embryos= cartilaginous precursor to bone
  • endochondral ossification
  • composition= 70% bound water, 40% dry weight of fibers (Collagen 1), 60% GAGs
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9
Q

Endochondral ossification

A
  • how cartilage is turned into bone
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10
Q

Fibrocartilage

A
  • unusual cartilage (no perichondrium b/c not a discrete tissue)
  • blend of dense CT and hyaline cartilage cells that produce matrix
    -dense CT made of thick bundles of collagen 1 fibers which is made by fibroblasts
  • GS of sulfates GAGs
  • location: spinal column (between vertebrates)
    -resists compression and stretching
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11
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

-matrix consists of a mix of elastic fibers and collagen type 2
-flexible
- found in external ear, epiglottis (near trachea)

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12
Q

Bones

A
  • cell +matrix (mineralized by hydroxyapatite which is phosphate and calcium
  • 3 classification: long, flat, and irregular
  • not homogenous
  • light area= more dense
  • dark area= less dense
  • black= no density
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13
Q

Compact (lamellar)

A
  • type of bone tissue
  • light area (found on the outer surface of the bone)
  • dense
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14
Q

Cancellous/spongy/trabecular

A
  • type of bone tissue
  • open, porous network
  • honeycomb looking
  • in the middle
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15
Q

Long bone

A
  • shaft is called the diaphysis (has 1 in the middle)
    > largely hollow in adults
  • knobby part at the ends are called the epiphysis (2)
  • as we age spongy bone is removed from diaphysis and moves towards the epiphysis
  • marrow cavity (medullary cavity)
    > yellow marrow=white fat & red marrow=blood forming tissue in spongy bone (hematopoietic)
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16
Q

Irregular bones

A
  • ex: vertebrate, pelvic bone
  • pelvic girdle is a common source of tissue for marrow transplants
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17
Q

Flat bone

A
  • ex: bones of the craniun
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18
Q

Epiphyseal line

A
  • narrow lone of bone that spans across each epiphysis inside adult long bones
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19
Q

Periosteum

A
  • dense fibrous CT
  • adhesive to the compact bone by type 1 collagen “sharpey’s fibers”
  • becomes a component to the bone matrix that helps muscle attach to bone
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20
Q

Organic part of bone

A
  • cells + matrix
    > the matrix is the critical differing part of bone as tissue cells are negligible
  • matrix of bone -> osteoid= type 1 collagen + GS
    > primary component is fibers- collagen type 1
    > 60% of osteoid is Collagen 1, 40% is GS
    > GS is a firm gel
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21
Q

Inorganic part

A
  • calcium and phosphate (hydroxyapatite)
  • transforms the osteoid into bone through ossification
  • extracellular fluid= keeps ECM wet
    > vehicle by which all our cells get nutrients and oxygen and aids in delivery of calcium and phosphate to osteoid
    -osteoblasts are cells that make osteoid, initiate the formation of hydroxyapatite, and secrete membrane bound matrix vesicle into the matrix (50nm)
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22
Q

Story of bone

A
  1. Bone formation= begins in utero
  2. Bone remodeling= maintenance, can happen at the same as formation, and happens for our entire lives
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23
Q

Osteoprogenitor cell

A
  • produce osteoblasts
  • arise from the mesenchyme (CT stem cell)
  • found on all surfaces of bone- even inside surfaces
  • later stem cell- when stimulated, divides and differentiates into an osteoblast
24
Q

Osteoblast

A
  • active cells, making of osteoid
  • cytoplasm of these cells is PAS; indicator of carbohydrates and GAGs
25
Q

Osteocytes

A
  • mature bone cells that re trapped within the matrix
  • live within a lacuna
  • were called osteoblasts when they were actively secreting
  • have a low activity level but can become activated to perform small repairs; generally used for maintenance
26
Q

Osteoclasts

A
  • bone remodeling- break down one
  • influenced and stimulated by hormones
27
Q

Embryological origin of bone

A
  1. Intramembranous bones- aka membrane bones, dermal bones
    > bones of the cranium, face, clavicle (flat bones)
    > formed from an embryological membrane that was ossified
  2. Endochondral bone
    > arise from a cartilaginous precursor- hyaline cartilage transforms to bone
28
Q

Bone growth

A
  • grows in length and girth
  • lengthwise growth
    > growth by turning cartilage into bone- ossifying cartilage (endocrhondral ossification)
    > epihpyseal growth plate
29
Q

Skeletal muscle

A
  • muscle fiber = muscle cell
  • myofiber
  • long cylindrical cells that are the same length of the muscle
  • muscle cells are long, parallel cylinders having the same orientation as the muscle they are a part of
  • cell diameter is variable btwn 10-100 nm
    > different kinds of muscle cells have different diameters
30
Q

Skeletal muscle (part 2)

A
  • multinucleated cells= syncytium that gets punched out to peripher
  • external lamina
    > surrounds each cell like a sleeve -> in orange on diagram; covering covering over the cell membrane and is similar to structure of a basement membrane
  • 2 types of fibers over the external lamina w/periodicity which form the endomysium
    > (1) collagen type 1-larger
    > (2) reticular fiber (collagen type 3)- smaller
31
Q

Muscle 2

A
  • endomysium= muscle specific term
  • sarcolemma= refers to cell membrane and its external lamina
    > sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of the muscle cell)
    > sarcoplasmic reticulum
    ~ smooth ER, branching yellow and pink parts of the diagram
    ~ surrounds cylindrical bundles of filamets
32
Q

Muscle 2 (part 2)

A
  • myofibril= bundles are the same length of the diagram
    > component of myofiber
  • sarcoplasmic reticulum units
    > think about things stacked on a finger that are attached to each other
    > upper and lower edges of the SRUs are continuous bonds terminal cisternae
  • terminal cisternae
    > cistern- vessel for holding water
    > cavity within SRUs- hollow, membranous organelle
33
Q

Muscle 2 (part 3)

A
  • transverse tubules (T-tubules)
    > invagination of the cell membrane forms a tubule
    > go all the way around the cell surface
    > form a branching network that is perpendicular to the cell surface
    > dist from one set to another is uniform within a plane
    > dist btwn 1 set to another is larger when moving down the surface of the cell
    > dist changes are b/c of the different sized sarcoplasmic reticulum unistriad: group of 3 closely arranged structures
34
Q

Nervous tissue

A
  • Nervous tissue-> nervous system (NS)
  • works in conjunction with the endocrine system(ES) to create the communication network
    *Nature of communication
  • if we have cellular activity in a given location, it ends up causing some appropriate cellular response at another location
  • NS: uses electrical messages (action potential) ->nerve cells (responses immediate and short)
  • ES: chemical messages (hormone) -> circulatory system (responses delayed and long lasting)
35
Q

Organization of nervous system

A
  1. Central nervous system (CNS)-> brain and spinal cord
  2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)-> ganglia, nerves, and receptors
36
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A
  • classified using a variety of criteria
  • initial classification: based on function and relationship to CNS
    1. carries messages to CNS -> afferent NS (sensory)-homogenous
    2. receives messages from CNS -> efferent NS (motor) - heterogenous
37
Q

Efferent NS

A
  • Classification based on type of tissue innervated
    1. Somatic NS -> innervates skeletal muscle- voluntary (homogenous)
    2. Automatic NS -> smooth/cardiac muscle, glands - involuntary (visceral) (heterogenous)
38
Q

Automatic NS

A
  • classification based on location and function
    1. Sympathetic NS -> location: mid spinal cord, function: stress
    2. Parasympathetic NS -> location: upper and lower spinal cord, brain stem; function: resting activities, regular body function
39
Q

Nervous tissue (part 2)

A
  • classification bases on function
    1. Nerve cells = carry action potential
    2. Supporting cells= support nerve cells (glial cells)
  • NT = nerve cells + glial cells
40
Q

New terms for NT

A
  • neuron= nerve cell (we have 10 billion in our bodies)
  • fiber = refers to the axon part of a nerve cell
41
Q

Classification of neurons based on location (relative to CNS) and function

A
  1. Motor neurons (efferent in nature)
    > CNS -> effector (structure gives response)
  2. Sensory neuron (afferent in nature)
    > carry messages to CNS from the periphery where there is a sensory receptor which generates an AP
  3. Inter neurons (association neurons)
    > most abundant, all but 0.1%
    > found in CNS
42
Q

Nerve cell communication

A
  • neurotransmitters: acetylcholine(Ach) and norepinephrine (NE)
  • somatic NS = only has Ach
  • automatic NS
    > sympathetic = both Ach and NE
    > parasympathetic = only Ach
43
Q

Classification of neurons based on # of processes on cell body

A
  1. Multipolar (most abundant)
    > 1 axon and 2 or more dendrites
  2. Bi polar (found in places with special senses)
    > 1 axon and 1 Dendrite
  3. Pseudo-unipolar
    > 1 axon (with 2 branches) and 0 dendrites
    Where to find these?
    > motor neurons and inter neurons= multipolar
    > sensory neurons= pseudo-unipolar
44
Q

Genesis of Intramembranous bone

A
  1. Begins 4 weeks post conception- emergence of mesenchyme (CT stem cells)
    > these cells migrate to locations in the embryo where the Intramembranous bones will form
  2. 8 weeks after conception- aggregate and form an embryological membrane (sheet of cells roughly in the form of the bone that is forming- mostly flat bones)
45
Q

Genesis of Intramembranous bone (part 2)

A
  1. Mesenchyme cells begin to divide and differentiate and we get the formation of osteoblasts
    > osteoblasts secrete osteoid and spongy/compact bone are eventually formed
    > around the same time, blood vessels invade the forming spongy bone tissue and red marrow (diploe) forms within the bones
  2. Mesenchymal cells can also form osteoprogenitor cells, and those osteoprogenitor cells go on to produce osteoblasts
    > osteoprogenitor cells line outer and inner surfaces of developing bone and differentiate into osteoblasts which produce osteoid
    > appositional growth
46
Q

Genesis of endochondral bone

A
  1. Mesenchymal cells in the embryo migrate to where Intramembranous and endochondral bones form point where 2 processes diverge
    > rather than forming an embryological membrane, the cells form a grouping that is roughly the shape of the long bone it will be
  2. Differentiate into chondroblasts instead of osteoblasts- about 8 weeks after conception
    > activate cells that make cartilaginous precursor- tiny cartilage model of a future long bone it will be
47
Q

Genesis of endochondral bone (part 2)

A
  1. Cartilaginous precursor- 9 weeks after conception
    > made specifically of hyaline cartilage
    > has a perichondrium
    > after precursor is formed, the bone grows in length and girth (appositional and interstitial growth)
  2. Osteoblast formed- happens about 10 weeks after conception
    > periosteum instead of perichondrium
    > only involves part that will become eventual diaphysis of bone- epiphyses keep their perichondrium
    > osteoblasts secrete a layer of osteoid
48
Q

Genesis of endochondral bones (part 3)

A
  1. Periosteum
    > osteoblasts make osteoid which covers diaphysis part of precursor
  2. Bony collar formed
    > osteoid convering diaphysis part of precursor
    > layer of bone over cartilage causes cells under the bony collar to suffer and swell inside their lacunae b/c they cannot get nutrients through diffusion
  3. Cells under bony collar begin to secrete alkaline phosphate when under stress
    >alkaline phosphate-enzyme that initiates formation of hydroxyapatite in bone; turns osteoid into bone
49
Q

Genesis of endochondral bone (part 4)

A
  1. Calcification
    > alkaline phosphate causes calcification of the matrix and makes a barrier to diffusion
  2. Chondrocytes die and disappear
    > thin walls of the cartilage matrix are formed (spicules)
    > vacant lacunae get larger b/c matrix deteriorates-looks like spongy bone but isn’t b/c its made of cartilage
    > main component of bone matrix is collagen type 1 and it stains pink w/ H+E stain; cartilage stains blue
  3. 2 concurrent events
    >1. Blood vessels create holes in the bony collar through diaphysis & invades the newly formed cartilaginous matrix
    >2. Mesenchymal cells migrate into diaphysis through the same hole that was formed by the blood vessels
50
Q

Genesis of endochondral bone (part 5)

A
  1. Mesenchyme cells divide and differentiate into osteoprogenitor cells which line cartilaginous surfaces
    > osteoprogenitor cells divide and form osteoblasts
    > osteoblasts -> osteoid
    > mixed spicules: 2 parts
    >1. Acidophilic part (pink)- bone
    >2. Basophilic part (blue)- cartilage matrix core
    > cartilaginous matrix core disappears and osteoblasts fill the space with osteoid
  2. Cartilage -> spongy bone
  3. Stem cells from blood -> red marrow
    > adult: diaphysis have a medullary cavity w/ yellow marrow
  4. Bone resorption- removal of spongy bone in adult
    > by osteoclasts: related to monocytes
    > mononuclear phagocytic system- macrophages of various types
51
Q

Bone growth

A
  • grows in length and girth
  • lengthwise growth
    > grows by turning cartilage into bone- ossifying cartilage (endochondral ossification)
    > epiphyseal growth plate- where the epiphysis meets the diaphysis
52
Q

Epiphyseal growth plate zones

A
  1. Zone of reserve cartilage
  2. Zone of proliferation
    > cells begin to divide, become synthetically active, and making cartilaginous matrix
    > stacked in columns
  3. Zone of hypertrophy
    > cells are enlarging&filling the lacunae in which they reside
  4. Zone of degeneration
    > cells are secreting alkaline phosphate which causes calcification of the matrix
    > holes and gaps created in the matrix
  5. Zone of resorption
    > osteoblasts lining the surfaces of enlarging gaps and holes; secreting osteoid
    > forming bone from mixed spicules
    > blood vessels invade the area
53
Q

Primary and secondary ossification

A
  • Primary ossification= formation of spongy bone in the diaphysis due to the bony collar- happens before birth
  • secondary ossification= happens at different times b/c we have 2 epiphyses for each long bone
    > proximal end of a bone does ossification first (end closer to body)
    > distal ends ossify later (end farther from body)
    > occurs after birth
    > areas of cartilage still exist- articulate surface (cartilage that forms our joints)
54
Q

Bone remodeling

A
  • combined process that includes removal and replacement of bone
  • main cell in this process= osteoclast
    > large, multinucleated cell
    > often hidden away in surfaces of bone when inactive
    > activity controlled largely by the levels of parathyroid hormone and the secretion of cytokines from osteoblasts
  • organic part of bone is osteoid (GS) and fibers; inorganic part is hydroxyapatite
55
Q

Bone remodeling (part 2)

A

-osteoclasts have 2 categories of secretion
1. Carbonic acid: removes hydroxyapatite
> dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions
> H^+ ions are removed from the cell by proton pumps and are pumped out of the cell to the bone surface where the acidity breaks down the hydroxyapatite- once gone, organic part if vulnerable
2. Enzymes: including cathepsin k which attacks fibers; GS attacked by other enzymes

56
Q

Bone remodeling (part 3)

A
  • pit/hole created in the bone is called the Howship’s lacunae
    > compelling to osteoblasts- don’t want holes so they will line the surface of the Howship’s lacunae and create a layer of osteoid (lamella)
    > osteoblasts then come in again and line the first lamella with more osteoid, however in another direction-> repeated over and over again
    >small gap in the middle where blood vessels and nerves will be- Haversian canal
    > whole structure is an osteon

Tissue Biology (7 decks)

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