Exam 1 Vocab review Flashcards
1
Q
cell soma
A
the cell body which contains the nucleus and synthesizes macromolecules/organelles, and integrates electrical activity
2
Q
axons
A
nerve fibers (many branches) that carry nerve impulses away from the soma
3
Q
myelin sheath CNS vs PNS
A
cell that speeds up the conduction of impulses on the axon of the neuron
- CNS = oligodendrocytes
- PNS = Schwann cells
4
Q
synapse
A
the end of an axon, which comes close to another part of a different neuron and releases a neurotransmitter
5
Q
neurotransmission
A
axon terminals release signals called neurotransmitters to other neurons at synapses
6
Q
dendrites
A
receive synapses from axon terminals and protrude from the soma
7
Q
what do astrocytes do?
A
- Remove and recycle neurotransmitters
- Insulate synapses from one another
- Regulate the extracellular ionic environment of the neurons
8
Q
oligodendrocytes
A
specialized glia that form myelin in the CNS
9
Q
microglia
A
glia that are like immune cells for the CNs and clean up after TBI
10
Q
ependyma
A
glia that lines the ventricles
11
Q
what is different about glia from nerve cells
A
may have processes that look like dendrites but they DON’T have an axon
12
Q
CNS
A
the brain and spinal cord which is enclosed by bone
13
Q
PNS
A
consists of ganglia and nerves and is not enclosed by bone
14
Q
Parts of the peripheral nervous system
A
- sensory neurons
- motoneurons
- autonomic nervous system
15
Q
Sympathetic nervous sysen
A
triggers fight or flight
16
Q
parasympathetic nervous system
A
rest and recovery after sympathetic stimulation
17
Q
enteric nervous system
A
lets the gut work and propel food
18
Q
tracts
A
bundles of axons in the CNS
19
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nuclei
A
groups of neuronal cell bodies clustered together (cortical layers)
20
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ganglia
A
groups of neuronal somata in the PNs
21
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nerves
A
bundles of axons in the PNS
22
Q
What is white matter?
A
axon tracts
23
Q
what is the gray matter?
A
soma collections
24
Q
dorsal
A
back or top
25
ventral
bottom
26
rostral
toward the mouth
27
caudal
toward the tail
28
what are the 3 planes of sectioning?
1. coronal such as splitting perpendicular to the front of the face
2. horizontal such as splitting the brain into dorsal and ventral
3. parasagittal, such as splitting later to the hemispheric fissure
29
brainstem parts
medulla oblongata
pons
midbrain
- The pontine sulcus is the groove: superior and inferior parts
30
diencephalon parts
thalamus and hypothalamus
31
telencephalon
cerebral cortex
basal ganglia => lenticular nucleus and caudate nucleus
amygdala
32
gyrus
bump or ridge on the surface of the brain
33
sulcus
groove in the surface of the brain
34
fissure
deep grooves in the brain
35
pre-central gyrus
controls movement and is more anterior
36
post-central gyrus
controls touch and pain
37
frontal lobe
motor areas and complex thinking
38
parietal lobe
somatosensory area
39
occipital lobe
visual areas
40
temporal lobe
auditory areas
41
interhemispheric fissure
splits the brain into two sides
42
central sulcus
divides the post and pre central gyrus as well as the frontal lobe from the parietal
43
development process steps
1. fertilization to zygote (pronuclear stage has one from mom and one from dad)
2. zygote to morula => 4-5 division cycles
3. blastocyst => 2 cell layers and becomes circular and hollow (embryonic disk and bottom cubical shape)
4. embryonic disk gets a primitive streak
5. gastrulation (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm)
6. Neurulation
44
Cell cycle phases
G1: initiates or blocks cell division
S: DNa replication
G2: proteins needed for mitosis are expressed
M: cell division
G0: the cell will not divide anymore and is not in the cell cycle
45
primitive streak
happens at the embryonic disk where cells are dividing and moving ventrally to the small cubical layer of cells to form a depression along the midline
- first appears at the caudal end and expands rostrally
46
3 layers of gastrulation and where they are in relation to one another
1. endoderm is the ventral (bottom) layer
2. mesoderm the middle layer
3. ectoderm the dorsal (top) layer
47
what does the ecoderm produce
skin, CNS, and PNS
48
what does the mesoderm produce
bones, muscles, blood
49
what does the endoderm produce
lungs, liver, gut, other organs
50
neurulation
the flat neuro plate folds in on itself and the ridges on each side get closer until they meet along the midline
51
neural crest cells
produced from the neural tube closing, and these contribute to the peripheral neural system and detach from the ectoderm underneath it
52
anencephaly
defect in the anterior neural tube closing (the forebrain area didn't close)
53
spina bifida
defect in posterior neural tube closing so that the spinal cord bulges out between vertebrae
54
alar plate
becomes the dorsal part of the spinal cord for sensory information
55
basal plate
becomes the ventral column of the spinal cord for motor axons
56
vesicles (3)
swellings in the neural tube that form cavity regions of CSF called ventricles
1. forebrain => prosencephalon that forms the telencephalon, diencephalon, and optic vesicle
2. midbrain => also called the mesencephalon
3. hindbrain => rhombencephalon that forms the metencephalon and myelencephalon
57
secondary neural vesicles
- pontine flexure which opens up to the 4th centrical between the metencephalon and the myelencephalon
-cephalic flexure between the mesencephalon and the metencephalon
- cervical flexure between the spinal cord and myelencephalon
=> order goes (spinal cord area) cervical -> pontine -> cephalic (closer to diencephalon area)
58
ependyma
in the formation of the spinal cord, which surrounds the 4th ventricle on the dorsal side
59
sulcus limitans
the dop between the sensory neuron plate and the motor neuron plate
60
placode
thickening of the non ectoderm cells in the head
61
where is the PNS derived from?
the neural crest and neurogenic placodes, as well as ectoderm cells
62
neural crest cell divergence (table)
sensory ganglia (spinal dorsal root ganglia), autonomic ganglia (adrenal medulla, parasympathetic), schwann cells, enteric nervous system, melanocytes
63
neurogenic placodes cell divergence (table)
sensory ganglia (trigeminal n, facial n, vagus n, etc.), hair cells of inner ear, anterior pituitary gland, lense of the eye (outgrowth of the optic vesicle from the diencephalon where placode cells invaginate)
64
where are the placodes located specifically?
only in the head region => olfactory, lens, etc.
65
what does the neural tube develop into?
the CNS
66
what 3 things protects the CNS?
meninges, ventricles, and CSF
67
meninges layers
1. dura which is tough and adheres to skull/vertebrae
2. arachnoid mater which is between dura and pia and is spider like connectively
3. subarachnoid space (not technically a layer but between arachnoid and pia) and can be filled with CSF components
4. pia which is a single cell layer on top of the cortex
68
which meningeal layer has pain sensing nerves?
the dura has sensory which is where we get headaches => we also have meningeal arteries which are blood vessels
69
falx cerebri
dips into the interhemispheric fissure
70
tentorium cerebelli
separates the cerebrum and cerebellum
71
ventricles (4)
cavities filled with CSF
1. lateral => x2
2. 3rd
3. 4th
- cerebral aqueduct between 3rd and 4th
72
choroid plexus
network of blood vessels in ventricles that produce most of the CSF
73
what is the CSF composed of?
high sodium, low potassium, little protein, glucose, and calcium in the fluid
74
superior saggital sinus
major vein on the most dorsal part of the brain containing venous blood
75
arachnoid granulation
projection of arachnoid matter and subarachnoid space through the dura into the veins
76
how much CSF is produced/day?
500, but only 350 circulates and subarachnoid only holds 150 mL => the 350 gets circulated
77
CSF circulation flow
Choroid plexus ⇒ into 3rd ventricle which adds CSF ⇒ aqueduct no more production ⇒ 4th ventricle with more production ⇒ lateral/medial aperture/ central canal ⇒ subarachnoid space around the whole brain and spinal cord ⇒ vein ⇒ drains through arachnoid granulations
78
hydrocephalus
water on the brain => condition where the brain has increased pressure from CSF buildup
79
how much blood does the body produce per day
5000 mL of blood and the brain holds 150 mL =>750-1000 flow through per minute (20% of the blood every minute in the brain)
80
what is blood made of?
water, sodium, potassium, glucose, hormones, proteins, etc.
81
red blood cells
use hemoglobin to carry oxygen and CO2 (35-54% of blood by volume which is the hematocrit)
82
white blood cells
part of the immune system
83
platelets
cells involved in clotting
84
deoxygenated blood
has not made it to the lungs yet
85
oxygenated blood
made it to the lungs but hasn't hit tissue yet
86
where does blood go into your heart?
it goes into the right atrium and then the ventricle
87
where does blood leave the heart from?
the left atrium and left ventricle
88
when blood leaves the right ventricle where does it go?
through the pulmonary ARTERY as deoxygenated blood
89
when blood leaves the lungs, what does it go through?
the pulmonary VEIN into the left atrium and ventricle
90
artery
carries blood away from the heart => high pressure
91
vein
carrying blood toward the heart => low pressure
92
what are the blood vessels form largest to smallest leaving the heart? Entering the heart from smallest to largest?
leaving: arteries, arterioles, capillaries
entering: capillaries, venules, veins, heart
capillaries: where O2 gets translated from the blood into the tissues and CO2 gets transferred back
93
carotid arteries (3)
1. common carotid: splits your face and deep brain
2. internal carotid: branch that goes to the inner brain
3. external carotid arteries: a branch that goes to the outer brain
94
vertebral arteries
toward the side of the vertebrae and there are 2 holes on each lateral side to go through the chest and neck to foramen magnum at the base of the skull => supplies cerebellum and brianstem
95
circle of willis
arteries that come together as a anastomosis protecting againsted blocked arteries
- internal carotid arteries
- 3 cerebral arteries => anterior, vertebral, middle
- communicating arteries => anterior and posterior
- basilar artery => splits into two vertebral ones
96
dural venous sinuses
formed by two folds of dura which eventually drains into the internal jugular vein to carry blood to the heart
97
transverse sinus
drains the blood out of the superior sagittal sinus which is carried out laterally and drains into the internal jugular vein
98
jugular foramen
where the jugular and venous sinus connect at a hole leading out of the skull
99
hypoxia
decreased oxygen to the brain => induces vasodilation
- increased CO2 increases vasodilation
- decreased CO2 increaes vasoconstriction
100
what is the blood brain barrier?
tight junctions where capillary endothelium cells in the brain are also surrounded by astrocytes to only let nurtients enter and toxins exit via pumps
- lipids have an easier time passing though the barrier and may get stuck inside
101
circumventricular organs
the few places in the brain where the blood brain barrier does not exist
102
hemmrhagic stroke
bleeding in the skull arising from an aneurism in a blood vessel and can be treated by clipping the bottom of the ballooning blood vessel
103
ischemic stroke
a clot blocking out part of the arterial system due to the artery being blocked
- treated with a clot buster but can cause muscle weaness, difficulty speaking, drooping face, etc.
104
histological method
1. treat the tissue with a preservative
2. dissect the region of interest
3. embed the tissue in peraphin/plastic to cut this section
4. stain the tissue to reveal subject of interest
5. examine with a microscope
105
axon hallock
the place at the top of the axon where there trigger for the action potential is
106
how many human chromosome sets are there?
23 pairs and 46 chromosomes all together
107
trisomy 21
down syndrome resulting from an extra 21st chromosome
108
nissl substance
the rough ER of cells is stained purple => neurons have dark purple stain whereas other cells are less darkly colored
109
what do microtubules do?
help with shape of the cell
110
what do intermediate filaments do?
support long processes in neurons
111
what do microfilaments (actin) do?
growth cones and extend the cell
112
kinesins
move the cargo in the anterograde direction toward the axon terminal
113
dyneins
move the cargo in the retrograde direction toward the cell body
114
types of axon transport (speeds)
1. fast retrograde (50-200 mm/day) or anterograde (100-400 mm/day)
- fast anterograde for vesicles or organelles and retrograde for nerve growth factors
2. slow anterograde (0.25-5 mm/day)
- anterograde movement of neurofilaments required for structure
115
rabies
virus is taken up by peripheral nerve terminals and transported retrogradely into cell bodies of the CNS
116
herpes simplex
transported in sensory neurons and will survive in the soma of sensory neurons for life
117
CNS glia
- astrocytes for support
- oligodendrocytes to myelinate axons
- microglia as a housekeeper
118
PNS glia
- satellite cells to support the neurons
- schwann cellsto myelinate axons
- macrophages as housekeepers
119
upper motor neurons
neurons that encode information over a long distance => start in the cortex and then move downward toward the spine
120
major ions in the body
chloride, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium
121
ligand
a chemical that makes a pore open
122
initial segment
the sum of all excitatory and inhibitory inputs into the cell being monitered to stimulate the original action potential trigger in the axon
123
refractory period
the time span where a new action potential cannot be generated
124
lidocaine
drug that blocks voltage gated Na+ channels as well as action potentials => used as a local anesthetic
125
channelopathies
family of diseases caused by abnormal function of an ion channel usually due to a mutation in a gene for a channel protein
126
cable theory for axons
increasing diameter reduces resistance
127
babinksi sign
indicative of upper motor neuron disease as a retraction element
- goes away when it is an adult developed upper motor neuron after 4 pos-2 yrs
128
multiple sclerosis
antibodies attack myelin causing it to swell and detatch from the axon
129
glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
130
GABA
inhibitory neurotransmitter in teh brain
131
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions and other places
- enzymes break it up into choline and acetate which are taken up into the terminal by a choline transporter where it can be useful for synthesis of new transmitters
132
exocytosis
cell cargo is released to the external area => neurotransmitters are released to synaptic cleft
133
tetanus
clostridium bacteria that produce a toxin taken up by inhibitory spinal interneurons which degrades SNARE proteins for exocytosis
134
SNARE proteins
proteins that are along the membrane and in the vesicular membranes that interact with calcium and help release the neurotransmitters to the synaptic cleft
135
which neurotransmitters can be recycles through local astrocytes
glutamate and GABA
136
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
drugs for depression and anxiety are SSRIs
- lets seratonin stay longer in the synaptic cleft and activity is prolonged
137
ionotriphic receptor
ligand gated ion channels changed by binding of a ligand not a voltage
138
metabotrophic
G-protein coupled receptors which break apart and have a second messenger system that causes another channel to open
139
NMDA receptor
main glutamate receptor as well as a glutamate binding site where at resting potential it is blocked by magnesium, but when the neuron is partiallu depolarized to remove magnesium glutamate can initiate opening of the channel and allow Na+, Ca2+, and K+ passage
140
agonists
activators for neurotransmission receptors
141
antagonists
inhibitors of neurotransmission receptor
142
Ketamine
a sedative or anestheisa (antagonist) for NMDA (glutamate)
143
EPSPs
excitatory postsynaptic potentials that push the axon to become more depolarized (+)
144
IPSPs
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials that push the axon to become more hyperpolarized (-)
145
graded potential
amplitude varies with intensity of the stimulus and can be depolarizing or repolarizing
146
long term potential (LTP)
this change is long lasting after a burst of excitatory activity on a postynaptic neuron
147
lamina
the pieces of the bone where beneath them you find the spinal cord
148
dorsal roots
carry sensory information into the psinal cord on the posterior side
149
ventral roots
carry motor axons out of the spinal cord
150
spinal nerves
formed by the fusion of dorsal and ventral roots merging
151
ganglion
bunch of cell bodies in the PNS
152
vertebral column
cervival (7) => arms and hands
thoracic (12) => stomach and back
lumbar (5) => front of the legs and feet
sacral (4) => back of the legs and butt
153
cauda equina
the bottom of the spinal cord that is a sack of nerve roots
154
dermatomes
regions of the body where certain spinal nerves are innervating portions of the body
155
dorsal horn
has the sensory neurons
156
ventral horn
motor neurons
157
white matter regions in the spine
dorsal, lateral, and ventral funiculus
158
gray matter in the spine
dorsal horn, intermediate grey, and ventral horn
159
out of cervival, thoracic, and lumbar which has less gray matter?
thoracic has less gray matter because they innervate limbs
160
does rostral or caudal have more white matter?
rostral has more white matter because there are more axons going down from the brain
161
spinal systems
sensory and motor
162
sensory system
1. skin => touch, vibration, temperature
2. viscera => heart, lungs, gut, etc. organs
3. self sensing like muscle length, load, and joint angle
163
somatosensory information processing
1. local spinal circuits => hardwired mediated spinal reflexes preprogrammed for stimuli
2. information to cerebellum and brainstem => balance and coordination of movements
3. information to cerebral cortex => conscious perceptions and other responses
164
spinocerebellar tract
starts in the spine and then goes upward to the cerebellum
165
spinothalamic tract
pain and temperature and enters in the dorsal horn before crossing over and carrying up to the thalamus
166
dorsal column pathway
vibration and proprioception for touch which asends up the spinal cord through the dorsal funiculi and into the brainstem to the thalamus
167
corticospinal tract
runs down from the motor region of the cerebra cortex into the lateral funiculi area and then through the ventral horn to the biceps to contract
168
arthritis
pressure on a spinal nerve in a foramen which causes pain and muscle weakness
