Exam #1 Study Guide Flashcards
What is Cognitive Psychology?
The indirect scientific study of mental processes, including obviously intellectual activities (memory recall, attention, judgements) but also activities that depend on these intellectual achievements; as well as the indirect study of failures and limitations of cognition.
Reaction time as a measure of cognitive processing
Response time (RT) measures cognitive processing by measuring the amount of time (usually measured in milliseconds) needed for a person to respond to a particular event (like a question or que).
Introspection (and it’s problems)
Introspection is the process through which one “looks within”, to observe and record the contents of ones own mental life.
The issues with this method are there is no access to unconscious process as the individual cannot be aware of them, and introspective claims cannot be scientifically tested/inspected as potential evidence.
Behaviorism (and it’s problems)
Behaviorism is a study of cognitive processes that emphasizes broad principles concerned with how behavior changes in response to different configurations of stimuli (often called “rewards” and “punishments”). In early days behaviorists sought to avoid mentalistic terms.
The issues with this method is that subjective experience will undeniably guide how an individual interprets stimuli, and behaviorism seeks to avoid the mental world, so this evidence must be considered but cannot possibly be considered. Therefore, a complete behaviorist psychology may be impossible.
Methods in cognitive psychology (e.g., RT, EEG, fMRI, TMS, etc)
Response Time (RT): Paints an idea of how ideas and mental images are represented and analyzed within the mind.
Electroencephalogram (EEG): A recording of voltage changes occurring at the scalp that reflect activity in the brain underneath.
Magnetic Response Imaging (MRI): A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields (created by radio waves) to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of brain tissue. Much more precise than a CT scan.
Functional Magnetic Imaging (fMRI): A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of activity levels in different areas of the brain at a particular moment in time.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): A technique in which a series of strong magnetic pulses at a specific location on the scalp causes temporary disruption in the brain region directly underneath the scalp area.
4 lobes of the brain: location and function
Frontal Lobes: The lobe of the brain in each cerebral hemisphere that includes the prefrontal area and the primary motor projection area.
Parietal Lobe: The lobe in each cerebral hemisphere that lies between the occipital and frontal lobes and that includes some of the primary sensory (somatic) projection areas, as well as circuits that are crucial for the control of attention.
Temporal Lobes: The lobe of the cortex lying inward and down from the temples. The temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere includes the primary auditory projection area, Wernicke’s area, and subcortically, the amygdala and hippocampus.
Occipital Lobes: The rearmost lobe in each cerebral hemisphere, and the one that includes the primary visual cortex.
3 main divisions of the brain: hindbrain, midbrain, & forebrain
Hindbrain: One of the three main structures in the brain; the hindbrain sits atop the spinal cord and includes several structures crucial for controlling key life functions. Regulates heartbeat, controls alertness, and maintains posture/balance.
Midbrain: One of the three main structures in the brain; the midbrain plays a role in coordinating movements, and it contains structures that serve as “relay” stations for information arriving from sensory organs. Coordinates eye movement, regulates pain experiences, and relays auditory information to the forebrain.
Forebrain: One of the three main structures in the brain; the forebrain plays a crucial role in supporting intellectual functioning. It surrounds and hides from view, the midbrain and most of the hindbrain. Includes the cerebral cortex.
Subcortical structures in the brain including the limbic systems: locations and functions
Subcortical structures: Pieces of the brain underneath the cortex, therefore hidden from view. Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and various components of the limbic system.
Limbic System: A set of brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus. The limbic system is believed to be in control of emotional behavior and motivation, and it also plays a key role in learning and memory.
Thalamus: A part of the lower portion of the forebrain that serves as a major relay and integration center for sensory information.
Hypothalamus: A small structure at the base of the forebrain that plays a vital role in the control of biologically motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity.
Hippocampus: A structure in the temporal lobe that is involved in the creation of long-term memories and spatial memory.
Cognitive neuroscience methods (e.g., EEG, fMRI, PET, MRI, TMS)
Electroencephalogram (EEG): A recording of voltage changes occurring at the scalp that reflect activity in the brain underneath.
Magnetic Response Imaging (MRI): A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields (created by radio waves) to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of brain tissue. Much more precise than a CT scan.
Functional Magnetic Imaging (fMRI): A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of activity levels in different areas of the brain at a particular moment in time.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): A technique in which a series of strong magnetic pulses at a specific location on the scalp causes temporary disruption in the brain region directly underneath the scalp area.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan): A neuroimaging technique that determines how much glucose (the brain’s fuel) is being used by specific areas of the brain at a particular moment in time.
Contralateral Organization
Contralateral Control: A pattern in which the left half of the brain controls the right half of the body, and the right half of the brain controls the left half of the body.
Neurons vs glial cells
Neurons: Cells within the nervous system that transmits/signals information throughout the nervous system. They are the primary computational unit in the nervous system, they communicate between each other, as well as with organs and muscles.
Glial Cells: Provide various supporting roles in the nervous system. They offer structural support, produce myelin, modulate neural activity (via extracellular fluid), clean up extracellular space, guide development of the nervous system (early development: radial glial cells), and repair damage.
Basic parts of a neuron
A neuron is made up of three major parts, the cell body (soma), dendrites, and the axon/axon terminal.
Cell body: The area of a biological cell containing the nucleus and the metabolic machinery that sustains the cell.
Dendrites: The part of a neuron that usually detects the incoming signal; the “input” side of the neuron, usually receives messages from many other neurons.
Axon: Part of the neuron that typically transmits a signal away from the neuron’s cell body and carries the signal to another location; “output” side of the neuron – sends impulses to other neurons.
What is a synapse (presynaptic vs post synaptic)?
A synapse is the area between two neurons that includes the presynaptic membrane of one neuron, the postsynaptic membrane of another neuron, and the tiny gap between them. The presynaptic neuron membrane releases a small amount of neurotransmitter that drifts across the gap and stimulates the postsynaptic membrane.
Presynaptic neuron: The cell membrane of the neuron “sending” information across the synapse.
Postsynaptic neuron: The cell membrane of the neuron “receiving” information across the synapse.
When neurotransmitters are received, they cause changes in the membrane that allow ions to flow into and out of the postsynaptic cell, if these ionic flows are large enough they reach the postsynaptic cells threshold, causing an action potential; the postsynaptic cell recovers quickly and the ions are moved back to their initial positions.
Action potential and the all-or-none law
Action potential: A brief change in the electrical potential of an axon. The action potential is the physical basis of the signal sent from one end of a neuron to the other; usually triggering a further chemical signal to other neurons. This occurs in the axon hillock.
All-or-none law: The principle stating that a neuron or detector either fires completely or does not fire at all; no intermediate responses are possible. Graded responses are possible, by virtue of the fact that neurons/detectors can fire more or less frequently, and for a longer or shorter time.
Retina and photoreceptors (rods vs cones)
Retina: The light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eyeball.
Photoreceptors: Cells on the retina that are sensitive to light and that respond (i.e. send a signal to adjacent cells) when they are stimulated by light. There are two kinds, rods and cones.
Rods: Photoreceptors that are sensitive to very low levels of light but that are unable to discriminate hues and that have relatively poor activity. (120 million per retina)
Cones: Photoreceptors are able to discriminate hues and that have high acuity. Cones are concentrated in the retina’s fovea and become less frequent in the visual periphery. They need more light to operate (6 million per retina), they are sensitive to differences in color.
Lateral inhibition
Lateral inhibition: A pattern in which cells, when stimulated, inhibit the activity of neighboring cells. In the visual system, lateral inhibition in the optic nerve creates edge enhancement; bottom-up processing.
Edge enhancement: A process created by lateral inhibition in which the neurons in the visual system give exaggerated responses to edges of surfaces; this process is pertinent because it defines an objects exact shape.
What is a receptive field?
Receptive Field: The portion of the visual field to which a cell within the visual system responds. If the appropriately shaped stimulus appears in the appropriate position, the cell’s firing rate will change. The firing rate will not change if the stimulus is of the wrong form or is in the wrong position.
Properties of center-surround cells
Center-Surround Cells: A type of neuron in the visual system that has a “donut-shaped” receptive field. Stimulation in the center of the receptive field has one effect on the cell; stimulation in the surrounding ring has the opposite effect. For these cells, a strong uniform stimulus is equivalent to no stimulus at all - the cell will not react.
