Chapter 2: The Neural Basis for Cognition

Question 1

Amygdala

Answer 1

An almond-shaped structure in the limbic system that plays a central role in emotion and in the evaluation of stimuli, may also play a role in emotional memory and decision making.

Question 2

Prefrontal Cortex

Answer 2

The outer surface of the foremost part of the brain. The prefrontal cortex has many functions but is crucial for the planning of complex or novel behaviors, so this brain area is often mentioned as one of the main sites underlying the brain’s executive functions.

Question 3

Hindbrain

Answer 3

One of the three main structures in the brain; the hindbrain sits atop the spinal cord and includes several structures crucial for controlling key life functions.

Question 4

Cerebellum

Answer 4

Largest area of the hindbrain, crucial for the coordination of bodily movements and balance.

Question 5

Midbrain

Answer 5

One of the three main structures in the brain; the midbrain plays a role in coordinating movements, and it contains structures that serve as “relay” stations for information arriving from sensory organs.

Question 6

Forebrain

Answer 6

One of the three main structures in the brain; the forebrain plays a crucial role in supporting intellectual functioning

Question 7

Cortex

Answer 7

The outermost surface of an organ in the body; psychologists are most commonly interested in the brains cortex and specifically, the cerebral cortex.

Question 8

Convolutions

Answer 8

The wrinkles visible in the cerebral cortex that allow the enormous surface area of the human brain to fit into the relatively small volume of the skull.

Question 9

Longitudinal Fissure

Answer 9

The separation dividing the brains left cerebral hemisphere from the right.

Question 10

Central Fissure

Answer 10

The separation dividing the frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the parietal lobes.

Question 11

Lateral Fissure

Answer 11

The separation dividing the frontal lobes on each side of the brain from the temporal lobes.

Question 12

Cerebral Hemisphere

Answer 12

One of the two hemispherical brain structures — one on the left side, one on the right — that constitutes the major part of the forebrain in mammals.

Question 13

Frontal Lobes

Answer 13

The lobe of the brain in each cerebral hemisphere that includes the prefrontal area and the primary motor projection area.

Question 14

Parietal Lobes

Answer 14

The lobe in each cerebral hemisphere that lies between the occipital and frontal lobes and that includes some of the primary sensory projection areas, as well as circuits that are crucial for the control of attention.

Question 15

Temporal Lobes

Answer 15

The love of the cortex lying inward and down from the temples. The temporal lobe in each cerebral hemisphere includes the primary auditory projection areas, Wernicke’s area, and sub-cortically, the amygdala and hippocampus.

Question 16

Occipital Lobes

Answer 16

The rearmost lobe in each cerebral hemisphere, and the one that includes the primary visual cortex.

Question 17

Subcortical Structures

Answer 17

Pieces of the brain underneath the cortex, therefore hidden from view, includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and various components of the limbic system.

Question 18

Thalamus

Answer 18

A part of the lower portion of the forebrain that serves as a major relay and integration center for sensory information.

Question 19

Hypothalamus

Answer 19

A small structure at the base of the forebrain that plays a vital role in the control of biologically motivated behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sexual activity.

Question 20

Limbic System

Answer 20

A set of brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus. The limbic system is believed to be in control of emotional behavior and motivation, and it also plays a key role in learning and memory.

Question 21

Hippocampus

Answer 21

A structure in the temporal lobe that is involved in the creation of long-term memories and spatial memory.

Question 22

Commissures

Answer 22

The thick bundles of fibers along which information is sent back and forth between the two cerebral hemispheres.

Question 23

Corpus Callosum

Answer 23

The largest of the commissures linking the left and right hemispheres.

Question 24

Computerized Axial Tomography (CT Scans)

Answer 24

A neuroimaging technique that uses X-rays to construct a precise three-dimensional image of the brains anatomy.
- Was the primary neuroimaging tool for many years.

Question 25

Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scans)

Answer 25

A neuroimaging technique that determines how much glucose (the brain’s “fuel”) is being used by specific areas of the brain at a particular moment in time.

Question 26

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Answer 26

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields (created by radio waves) to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of brain tissue.
- Much more precise than CT Scans

Question 27

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Answer 27

A neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic fields (created by radio waves) to construct a detailed three-dimensional representation of activity levels in different parts of the brain at a particular moment.

Question 28

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Answer 28

A recording of voltage changes occurring at the scalp that reflect activity in the brain underneath.

Question 29

Event-Related Potentials

Answer 29

Changes in an EEG in a brief period just before, during, and after an explicitly defined event, usually measured by averaging together many trials in which this event occurred.

Question 30

Fusiform Face Area (FFA)

Answer 30

A brain area apparently specialized for the perception of faces.

Question 31

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Answer 31

A technique in which a series of strong magnetic pulses at a specific location on the scalp causes temporary disruption in the brain region directly underneath the scalp area.

Question 32

Localization of Function

Answer 32

The research endeavor of determining what specific job is performed by a particular region in the brain.

Question 33

Primary Motor Projection Areas

Answer 33

The strip of tissue, located at the rear of the frontal lobe, that is the departure point for nerve cells that send their signals to lower portions of the brain and spinal cord, and that ultimately result in muscle movement.

Question 34

Primary Sensory Projection Area

Answer 34

The main point of arrival in the cortex for information arriving from the eyes, ears, and other sense organs.

Question 35

Apraxia

Answer 35

Due to damage to the frontal lobe, disturbances in the initiation or organization of voluntary action.

Question 36

Agnosia

Answer 36

Due to damage of the occipital lobe, disruptions in the ability to identify familiar objects.

Question 37

Aphasia

Answer 37

Due to damage of the temporal lobe, disruptions in the language capacities.

Question 38

Association Cortex

Answer 38

The traditional name for the portion of the human cortex outside the motor and sensory projection area.
- 75% percent of the cortical areas, with specialized sections within.

Question 39

Unilateral Neglect Syndrome

Answer 39

A pattern of symptoms in which affected individuals ignore all inputs coming from one side of space. Individuals with this syndrome put only one of their arms into their jackets, eat food from only half of their plates, read only half of a word.
- usually occurs due to lesions in the parietal lobe.

Question 40

Neurons

Answer 40

An individual cell within the nervous system.

Question 41

Cell Body

Answer 41

The area of a biological cell containing the nucleus and the metabolic machinery that sustains the cell.

Question 42

Dendrites

Answer 42

The part of a neuron that usually detects the incoming signal.

Question 43

Axon

Answer 43

Part of the neuron that typically transmits a signal away from the neuron’s cell body and carries the signal to another location.

Question 44

Glia

Answer 44

A type of cell found (along with neurons) in the central nervous system. Glial cells have many functions, including the support of neurons, the repair of neural connections in case of damage, and a key role in guiding the initial development of neural connections. A specialized type of glia also provide electrical insulation (myelin sheath in central nervous system) for some neurons, allowing much faster transmission of neuronal signals.

Question 45

Neurotransmitter

Answer 45

One of the chemicals released by neurons to stimulate adjacent neurons.

Question 46

Synapse

Answer 46

The area including the presynaptic membrane of one neuron, the postsynaptic membrane of another neuron, and the tiny gap between them.

Question 47

Presynaptic Neuron

Answer 47

The cell membrane of the neuron “sending” information across the synapse.

Question 48

Threshold

Answer 48

The activity level at which a cell or detector fires.

Question 49

Action potential

Answer 49

A brief change in the electrical potential of an axon. The axon potential is the physical basis of the signal sent from one end of a neuron to the other; usually triggering further chemical signals to other neurons.

Question 50

Myelin Sheath

Answer 50

The layer of tissue, formed by specialized glial cells, that provides insulation around the axons of many neurons. There are, however, gaps in this insulation, and the neuronal signal essentially has to “jump” from one gap to the next, dramatically increasing the speed of neurotransmission.

Question 51

All-or-none Law

Answer 51

The principle stating that a neuron or detector either fires completely or does not fire at all; no intermediate responses are possible.

Question 52

Coding

Answer 52

The system through which one type of information stands for, or represents, a different type of information. In the context of the nervous system, this refers to the way in which activity in neurons manages to stand for, or represent, particular ideas or thoughts.