Exam 1 - Lecture Notes Flashcards
gross anatomy / macro anatomy
large structures, visible
microanatomy
requires a microscope to observe
cytology
study of cells, individual cells
histology
study of tissue
regional anatomy
within a region, often multiple tissues / organs serving coordinated function, complementary
systemic anatomy
all structures making up a system
what system?
- hair, skin and nails
- encloses internal body structures, site of many sensory receptors
integumentary system
what system?
- cartilage, bones, joints
- supports the body, enables movement
skeletal system
what system?
- skeletal muscles, tendons
- enables movement, helps maintain body temperature
muscular system
what system?
- brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
- detects and processes sensory, activates bodily responses
nervous system
what system?
- pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes, ovaries
- secretes hormones, regulates bodily processes
endocrine system
what system?
- heart, blood vessels
- delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues, equalizes temperature in the body
cardiovascular system
what system?
- thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels
- returns fluid to blood, defends against pathogens
lymphatic system
what system?
- nasal passage, trachea, lungs
- removes carbon dioxide from the body, delivers oxygen to blood
respiratory system
what system?
- stomach, liver, gall bladder, large intestine, small intestine
- processes food for use by the body, removes wastes from undigested food
digestive system
what system?
- kidneys, urinary bladder
- controls water balance in the body, removes waste from blood and excretes them
urinary system
what system?
- epididymis, testes
- produces sex hormones and gametes, delivers gametes to female
male reproductive system
what system?
- mammary glands, ovaries, uterus
- produces sex hormones and gametes, supports embryo/fetus until birth, produces milk for infant
female reproductive system
homeostasis
maintaining steady state (via physiological regulation)
structural organization of a body from smallest to largest
- chemical (atoms, electrons, molecules)
- cell
- tissue
- organ
- organ system
- organism
what is the smallest independently functioning unit?
cell
2+ cells, has a specific function
tissue
anatomically distinct with more than 2 tissues
organ
a group of organs that perform major function
organ system
two types of metabolism
anabolism and catabolism
anabolism
building up, often using energy
catabolism
breaking down, often gaining energy
differentiation
cells become specialized/functional
hyperplasia
increase in cell number
hypertrophy
increase in cell size
4 requirements for life
- oxygen
- nutrients
- narrow range of temperature
- narrow range of atmospheric pressure
3 basic nutrients
- water
- energy
- micronutrients
nutrient: energy and examples
- yielding / body building nutrients
- carbohydrates, fats, proteins
nutrients: micronutrients
vitamins and minerals (cofactors for enzymes)
homeostasis
maintenance of steady state; especially normal state (set point, normal range)
negative feedback
reverses a change, maintains homeostasis
3 basic components of a feedback system
- sensor
- control center
- effector
positive feedback
augments change, increasing the change
what is more common, positive or negative feedback?
negative feedback
is positive feedback considered maintaining homeostasis?
NO
how does positive feedback send out signals and amplify them through the body?
a 1st messenger binds to a membrane receptor, an effector turns on and activates a 2nd messenger
what do kinases do?
phosphorylate things, often to increase activity
after phosphorylation by kinases, the enzyme ______________ will come in and chop off the phosphate to inactivate it
phosphodiesterases
homeohesis
the orchestrated or coordinated control in metabolism of body tissues necessary to support physiological state (an animal not in normal state)
examples of homeohesis
- gestation
- lactation
- growing additonal muscle
body planes: sagittal / longitudinal plane
divides left vs right side
body planes: frontal / coronal plane
divides anterior (front) vs posterior (rear)
body planes: transverse plane / cross section
divides upper vs lower
pleural cavity
surrounds lungs
pericardium
surrounds heart
peritoneum
surrounds organs in abdominal cavity
serous membranes (serosa)
thin membranes cover organs, walls
parietal layer
covers walls
visceral layer
covers organs
fluid-filled cavity
serous space (lubricate and reduce friction)
what elements are the body mostly made up of?
- oxygen
- carbon
- hydrogen
- nitrogen
isotopes
a nucleus of an element that have a different number of neutrons (oftentimes unstable)
radioactive isotopes
the nucleus readily decays giving off subatomic particles and electromagnetic energy
why are radioactive isotopes important in medicine?
they are detectable, so they can be used to detect and shrink tumors
stable isotopes
do not decay but can be detected by mass spectrometry
3 types of reactions
- synthesis
- decomposition
- exchange
dehydration synthesis reaction
substrates are combined by the removal of water
synthesis reaction
A + B —> AB
decomposition reaction
AB —–> A + B
exchange reaction
AB + CD —> AC + BD
what factors alter the rate of reactions?
- reactant properties
- temperature
- concentration and pressure
- enzymes and catalysts
how do enzymes and catalysts effect reaction rate?
lower activation energy of a reaction
inorganic: mostly lack carbon but always lack ___ and ___
C and H
organic: generally carbon containing but always contains ___ and ___
C and H
acids
donate H+ (proton) in solution
base
donates OH- in solution / accepts H+ (protons) in solution
the lower the pH = more ______ = more _____ ions
more acidic = more H+ ions
the higher the pH = less ______ = more ______
less acidic = more basic
pH of normal body fluids
about 7.4
buffer
solution of weak acid and its conjugate base
acidosis
lower than normal pH
alkalosis
more than normal pH
metabolic acidosis
- reactions that generate CO2 or acidic compounds
- ex: lactic acid buildup
respiratory acidosis
low respiratory rate (hypoventilation), CO2 will stay inside the body increasing pH
metabolic alkalosis
diarrhea and loss of HCl
respiratory alkalosis
high respiratory rate (hyperventilation) not enough CO2 in the body so it raises blood pH
what happens when your blood pH differs from normal?
can cause you to pass out so that the body can fix itself
what is the bicarbonate buffering system and what does it regulate?
- CO2 + H2O <–> H2CO3 <–> HCO3- + H+
- regulates plasma pH
VFA
- volatile fatty acids
- short chain fatty acids
what are the three VFAs?
- acetate
- butyrate
- propionate
monomers
single unit
oligomers
few molecules
polymer
many molecules
carbohydrates general formula
(CH2O)n
5 important monosaccharides
- hexose: glucose, fructose, galactose
- pentose: ribose and deoxyribose
3 important disaccharides
sucrose, lactose, maltose
3 important polysaccharides
starch, glycogen, cellulose
how do we store glucose in the body?
glycogen
what are the three words used to describe connective tissue?
cells, gels, and fibers
what is the “gel” of connective tissue?
ground substance
what is ground substance made up of?
water stabilized by glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), proteoglycans, and glycoproteins
ground substance
a gel-like substance in the extracellular space that contains all components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) except fibers
what is the purpose of ground substance?
provide a route for communication and transport by diffusion between tissues
components of ground substance
- mainly water
- glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
- proteoglycans
- glycoproteins
what are glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)?
polysaccharides that trap water, giving the ground substance a gel-like texture
components of the ground substance are secreted by ___________
fibroblasts
loose connective tissue has few ____ and ____, and a large amount of __________ ___________
fibers and cells; ground substance
dense connective tissue has a small amount of ____________ __________ compared to fibrous material
ground substance
what is this structure?
ground substance
what are the common GAGs?
- hyaluronic acid
- heparan sulfate
- dermatan sulfate
- chondroitin sulfate
monoacylglycerides have ___ fatty acid chains
1
diglyceride has ____ fatty acid chains
2
triglyceride has ____ fatty acid chains
3
saturated fats
no double bonds, solid at room temperature, higher melting point
unsaturated fats
double bonds, fluid at room temperature
phospholipids
phosphate group with 1 or more lipid molecules (usually 2 FA tails)
phospholipids have a _____ head and _____ tail
polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic)
how do phospholipids look when they make up the cell membrane?
the heads are on the outside and inside of the cells and the tails are in the center
sterols
steroid hormones
____________ is the mother compound of steroid hormones
cholesterol
name this molecule
cholesterol
name this molecule
estradiol
name this molecule
progesterone
lipid nomenclature: delta system
- carbons counted from the carboxyl (alpha) end
- (delta=carboxyl end, remember abCD)
lipid nomenclature: omega system
- carbons counted from the methyl (omega) end
- (omega=methyl, remember oMEga=MEthyl)
trans vs cis fat
what is the name of this molecule?
PGF2a
what is the name of this molecule?
PGE2
what is the difference between PGF2a and PGE2?
what does PGE2 do? what drug blocks this from being produced?
- causes inflammation, dilation, pain
- ibuprofen
in proteins, shape determines ___________
function
protein: primary structure
sequence of AA
protein: secondary structure
beta sheets / alpha helix
protein: tertiary structure
further folding and bonding, 3D structure
protein: quaternary structure
multiple protein subunits
parts of an amino acid
- amine group
- carboxyl group
- R group (side chain)
a ______ bond connects AA
peptide
what reaction must occur for a peptide bond to form?
dehydration - condensation reaction
name the 5 nitrogenous bases
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil
purines
adenine, guanine
pyrimidines
cytosine, thymine, uracil
components of a nucleotide
- one or more phosphate groups
- pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribsose)
- nitrogenous base
nucleoside
sugar + nitrogenous base
nucleotide
sugar + nitrogenous base + phosphate
components of the cell membrane
- phospholipid bilayer
- cholesterol
- embedded proteins
integral proteins and examples
- span from the inside of the membrane to the outside of the membrane
- channel proteins, receptors - ligands, glycoproteins
peripheral proteins
on inside or outside of the cell, can attach to integral proteins
glycocalyx
- glycoprotein
- contributes to cell-cell recognition, communication, and intercellular adhesion
the membrane of cells is selectively permeable. what can pass through?
small, non polar (hydrophobic) molecules
passive transport
does not require energy
active transport requires ________
energy
examples of passive transport
diffusion, facilitated diffusion
GLUTS
glucose transporters (14 in humans)
osmosis
the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane down its concentration gradient
isotonic
soluble concentration at equilibrium
hypertonic
solute concentration is higher, so the water will leave the cell and the cell shrivels
hypotonic
solute concentration is lower, water enters the cell and bursts it
hydrostatic pressure
flowing from high to lower pressure due to permeability, fluid leaves the vessel
osmotic pressure
the opposing force, pulls the blood back into the blood vessel
when hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure (net filtration is positive), meaning…
fluid exits the vessel
when osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure (net filtration is negative), meaning…
fluid flows back into the vessel
active transport can go _______ the concentration gradient
against
sodium potassium pump causes _____ Na+ to leave the cell and ____ K+ to enter the cell
3 Na+ leave, 2 K+ enter
the sodium potassium pump creates an __________ gradient
electrical
symporters
moves 2 molecule in the same direction
antiporters
moves two molecules in the opposite direction
endocytosis and exocytosis are types of _______ transport
active
endocytosis
bringing into the cell using an intracellular vesicle
endocytosis: pinocytosis
cell drinking (fluid containing dissolved substances)
endocytosis: phagocytosis
cell eating (large particles)
endocytosis: recepto-mediated
receptors attract certain molecules
exocytosis
exiting the cell in a vesicle
cytosol + organelles = __________
cytoplasm
organelles in the endomembrane system
- ER
- Golgi apparatus
- lysosome
the rough ER is covered in _________
ribosomes
what is the main role of the rough ER?
protein synthesis (translation)
role of membrane bound ribosomes
attached to the ER membrane, synthesis of proteins that move into the ER
the smooth ER lacks ___________
ribosomes
role of smooth ER
lipid synthesis and stores Ca2+
what are the two sides of the Golgi apparatus and their purpose?
- cis = receives vesicles from the ER
- trans = releases new vesicles
job of the Golgi apparatus
- sort, modify, send to target site
- post-transcriptional modifications
lysosomes
large vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes
autophagy
“self-eating” = destroy damaged organelles
phago-lysosomes
phagocytizied materiał bacterial/foreign material is transported inside the lysosome to be killed
autolysis
cell self-destruction (apoptosis)
mitochondria
- 2 lipid bilayer membranes
- produces ATP
- cite of cellular respiration
peroxisomes
detoxification
peroxisomes transfer H to O forming _____________________ then it’s catalase catalyzes it to 2 H2O + O2 making it harmless
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
ROS
reactive oxygen species, highly reactive and can damage organelles and molecules
which organ has the most peroxisomes?
the liver, where detoxification takes place
cytoskeleton
forms structural framework of cells
microtubules are composed of _____________
alpha and beta tubules subunits
function of microtubules
cell motility, mitosis, intracellular transport, cell shape
what structures do microtubules form?
cilia, flagella, centrioles
microfilaments are composed of _____________
actin
function of microfilaments
cell contraction, movement, transport
intermediate filaments are composed of _______
keratin
functions of intermediate filaments
cell shape, structure, anchoring of organelles and cells to each other and the ECM
DNA organization
- histones (proteins)
- nucleosomes (DNA wrapped around histone)
- chromosomes (chromatin condenses for replication)
transcription
DNA –> RNA
translation
RNA —> protein
somatic cells
body cells
cell cycle
- G1 (gap 1, growth)
- S (synthesis of DNA)
- G2 (gap 2, grow and prep)
- M (mitotic phase, cell divides, mitosis)
- Go (rest, no division)
5 phases of mitosis
PPMAT (prophase, pro metaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)
why are checkpoints important in the cell cycle?
they look for errors in DNA replication, proofreading
what are cyclins in the cell cycle? what is an example?
- one of the primary classes of the cell cycle control molecules
- CDK = controls the cell cycle, push it on unless there is a given stop signal
tumor supressor genes
send stop signals during the cell cycle, they proofread and can trigger self deletion
what are oncogenes?
genes that are most commonly liked with mutations that cause cancer
what is the gaurdian of the genome?
p53, tumor suppressor genes
what is the most frequently mutated gene in human cancer
p53 or TP53
if DNA damage is recognized, what two things can a tumor suppressor gene do?
- fix the damage
- eliminate it through apoptosis
BRCA 1 and BRCA 2
- tumor suppressor genes
- breast cancer associated (risks of breast cancer, pancreas, ovarian, and prostate cancer)
totipotent
early embryos; can become any cell or whole organism
pluripotent
become any tissue
multipotent
can differentiate into any cell within a lineage
oligopotent
can form a few cell types within a lineage
unipotent
specialized (can only make more of its own cell type)
3 types of stem cells
- embryonic stem cells
- fetal stem cells
- adult stem cells
3 types of adult stem cells
- hematopoietic
- endothelial
- mesenchymal (muscle)
how do cells differentiate?
transcription factors
hematopoiesis
differentiation of multipotent cells into blood and immune cells
hECs
human embryonic stem cells (pluripotent)
adult stem cells, umbilical cord are ____potent
multipotent
iPSCs
induced pluripotent stem cells, yamanaka factors (4 types)
some individuals bank the _____ blood or _______ _______ of their child, storing these sources of stem cells for future use
cord blood or deciduous teeth
4 tissue types
- epithelial
- connective
- nervous
- muscle
brain, spinal cord, and nerves are all examples of _________ tissue
nervous
lining of GI tract organs and other hollow organs, and skin surface are examples of __________ tissue
epithelial
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle are examples of ________ tissue
muscle
fat and other soft padding tissue, bone, and tendon are examples of _________ tissue
connective
what are epithelial cells specialized for?
exchange or barrier
epithelial sheets
common, exchange nutrients across it
epithelial glands
secretion
exocrine glands
- ducts
- deliver to the outside
endocrine glands
- no ducts
- secrete into the extracellular space and bloodstream
lumen
the open space inside of glands
anoikis
a process of epithelial cell death after they are isolated or detached
why do epithelial cells die after they are isolated or detached?
to prevent ectopic growth or attachment
main cell type in connective tissue
fibroblasts
skin: cell types and fiber
- cells: mostly fibroblasts, some keratinocytes
- major fiber: collagen fibers
3 types of muscle tissue
- cardiac
- smooth
- skeletal
skeletal muscle
- striated, long, individual, multinucleated cells
- encased by connective tissue
epimysium
dense irregular connective tissue that surround the entire (smooth) muscle
perimysium
thinner connective tissue, bundles muscle fibers into fascicles
endomysium
fine connective tissue, surrounds each muscle fiber
smooth muscle voluntary or involuntary?
involuntary
cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary?
involuntary
skeletal muscle voluntary or involuntary?
voluntary
cardiac muscle
composed of branched, cylindrical cells called cardiomyocytes, which are connected by specialized junctions called intercalated discs
intercalated discs
used in cardiac cells to ensure coordinated contraction
smooth muscle
spindle shaped, inner circular and outer longitudinal
nervous tissue
specialized to transmit and receive electrical impulses
myelin sheath
insulting nerve fibers so it makes conduction more efficient
oligodendrocytes
makes the CNS myelin
schwann cells
makes the peripheral myelin
neuron: cell body
can sense things
neuron: axons
send information
neuron: synapse
communicate to the next neuron
neuroglia
support cells in nervous tissue (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, schwann cells, microglia)
neuroglia: microglia
macrophages (remove the damaged neurons and infections)
multiple sclerosis
antibodies attach the myelin sheath
larger objects have a ____ surface area:volume ratio
lower
ectoderm
outer layer
mesoderm
middle layer
endoderm
inner layer
what does the ectoderm form?
skin, neurons, pigment cells, etc.
what does the mesoderm form?
muscle, connective tissue, kidneys, RBCs, etc.
what does the endoderm form?
lining of airways and digestive system, glands, lung cells, thyroid cells, pancreatic cells, etc.
through _________ of the embryo, the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm can differentiate
gastrulation
synovial membranes
forms synovial fluid to lubricate joints (fibroblasts secrete hylaronic acid which traps water)
examples of epithelial membranes
- mucous membranes
- serous membranes
- cutaneous membranes
epithelial membranes are anchored by…
underlying connective tissue (lamina propria)
mucous membranes
lines external and secretes mucous
serous membranes
mesothelium, internal organs (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum)
cutaneous membranes
skin, stratified squamous, lamina propia; dead keratinized cells
the top of the cell is the ______ side, and the bottom of the cell is the _______ side
apical; basal
parts of the basement membrane
- basal lamina (attachment - glycoproteins/collagen)
- reticular lamina (connective tissue)
where is cilia commonly located in the body?
in the airways
where is microvilli commonly located in the body?
in the intestines
3 types of cell junctions
- tight junctions
- anchoring junctions
- gap junctions
tight junctions
- connect cells, creates a seal
- creates blood:brain barrier, blood:milk barriers, and zonula occludes
zonula occludes
tight junction
3 types of anchoring junctions
- desmosomes
- hemi-desmosomes
- zonula adherens
desmosomes: purpose, component
- cell:cell
- made up of CAMS (cell adhesion molecules)
- caherin
hemi-desmosomes: purpose, component
- cell:ECM
- integrins
zonula adherens: purpose, component
- cell shape
- attach to actin:contractile
gap junction allows _____ __________
open passage
goblet cells secrete _______
mucus
goblet cells make the protein _______, which attracts water
mucin
what type of cell is located in: air sacs of the lungs and the lining of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
simple squamous epithelium
simple squamous epithelium function
allows materials to pass through by diffusion and filtration, and secretes lubricating substance
what type of cell is located in: ducts and secretory portions of small glands and in kidney tubules
simple cuboidal epithelium
simple cuboidal epithelium function
secretes and absorbs
what type of cell is located in: ciliates tissues are in broochi, uterine tubes, and uterus; smooth are in digestive tract and bladder
simple columnar epithelium
simple columnar epithelium function
absorbs; also secretes mucous and enzymes
what type of cell is located in: ciliated tissue lines the trachea and much of the upper respiratory tract
pseudo stratified columnar epithelium
pseudo stratified columnar epithelium function
secretes mucus; ciliates will move mucus
what type of cell is located in: lines the esophagus, mouth, and vagina
stratified squamous epithelium
stratified squamous epithelium function
protects against abrasion
what type of cell is located in: sweat glands, salivary glands, and mammary glands
stratified cuboidal epithelium
stratified cuboidal epithelium function
protective tissue
what type of cell is located in: the male urethra and the ducts of some glands
stratified columnar epithelium
stratified columnar epithelium function
secretes and protects
what type of cell is located in: bladder
transitional epithelium
transitional epithelium function
allows expansion and stretch of organs
melanocytes make _________
melanin
albinism
congenital absence of melanin
in albinism, melanocytes are present but lack the enzyme _________
tyrosinase
endocrine glands secrete:
secrete hormones, ductless
exocrine glands secrete:
secrete saliva, milk, sweat, mucous, digestive enzymes
3 modes of secretion
- merocrine
- apocrine
- holocrine
merocrine secretion
exocytosis
apocrine secretion
cut the top off (apo=apical)
holocrine secretion
the whole cell bursts
connective tissue fibers
collagen, elastin
3 main categories of connective tissue
- proper connective tissue
- supportive connective tissue
- fluid connective tissue
what are the two types of proper connective tissue?
- loose CT
- dense CT
what are types of supportive connective tissue?
bone and cartilage
what are types of fluid connective tissue?
blood and lymph
what are the two TYPES of cells in the connective tissue?
- fixed cells
- wandering cells
types of fixed cells
fibroblasts, adipocytes, osteocytes, mesenchymal cells
types of wandering cells
immune cells (macrophages, mast cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells, neutrophils)
white vs brown adipocytes
- white = unilocular
- brown = multilocular
3 types of connective tissue fibers
- collagen
- elastic fiber
- reticular fiber
what common structures in the body contain collagen?
ligaments, tendons
what structure has elastic fiber?
skin
what structures have reticular fiber?
soft organs: liver, spleen, etc.
parenchyma
functional part of the organ, blood vessel, and nerves
stroma
supportive connective tissue
function of loose connective tissue
protects, insulates, shock absorb, allows diffusion
types of loose connective tissue
adipose tissue, areolar tissue, reticular tissue
two types of dense connective tissue
- regular
- irregular
regular dense connective tissue: structure and examples
- structure: parallel fibers
- examples: ligaments and tendons
irregular dense connective tissue: structure and examples
- structure: direction of fiber is random
- examples: dermis of skin, arteriole
what is the hardest connective tissue?
bone
cells in bone
osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes, osteoprogenitor, chondroblasts, chondrocytes
osteo = _______
bone
chondro = ________
cartilage
function of osteoblasts
lay down bone
function of osteoclasts
mobilize
gels in bone
glycoproteins, GAGs
fiber in bone
collagen
what mineral is in bone?
calcium phosphate –> hydroxyapatite
function of bone
provides protection and structural support
bones ECM is mostly ________ fibers and its ground substance is _________________
collagen; hydroxyapatite
endosteum in bone
on the inside
periosteum in bone
on the outside
where do osteocytes live in bone?
in lacunae (caves in the bone)
bone is highly ______________ so it can heal quickly
vascularized
ossification
bone formation
2 types of bones
- flat bones
- long bones
flat bones are made by _____________ ossification
intramembranous
long bones are made by _____________ ossification
endochondral (endoCHONDRal = cartilage first).
intramembranous ossification
mineral deposited with in a membrane template, makes flat bones
endochondral ossification
mineral is laid down with in a cartilage template, makes long bones
bone remodeling is a ___________ process, it is always breaking down and remaking itself
continuous
bone is ___________ so it can heal fast, while cartilage is ___________ and can typically only heal through surgery
vascular, avascular
arteriole vs venule structure
- arteriole = smooth muscle so it looks round and muscular
- venule = no smooth muscle, easily collapses and occludes
erythrocytes
red blood cells
leukocytes
white blood cells
Buffy coat
the white blood cell layer when you spin blood
platelets are used for ___________
clotting
lymph
ECF (no RBCs), delivers absorbed dietary fats through circulation
why do people collapse after standing for a long time?
lymph is moved by breathing and muscle contraction, so if you don’t move your muscles for an extended period of time it accumulates in the legs/feet causing edema
components of lymph
- lymphatic fluid
- lymphatic vessels
- lymphocytes
- lymphoid tissues, organs (spleen, thymus)
3 types of cartilage
- hyaline
- fibrocartilage
- elastic cartilage
hyaline cartilage
- most common
- strong and flexible
template for embryonic skeletal
hyaline cartilage
rib cage, nose, end of articulated bone are examples of ______ cartilage
hyaline
fibrocartilage and examples
tough, thick bundles of collagen
elastic cartilage
contains elastin with collagen and PGs
meniscus of knee, vertebral discs are ________cartilage
fibrocartilage
pinna of ears, Eustachian tubes, larynx are examples of ______ cartilage
elastic
melanocytes use __________ mode of secretion
merocrine
melanocytes sit in between the ________ cells of the skin
basal
2 main layers of skin
- epidermis
- dermis
beneath the dermis is the _________
hypodermis
keratinocytes
majority of skin cells
basal cells
proliferating/replicating layer (creates more cells)
merkel cells
touch receptors (attached to a sensory nerve)
melanocytes
melanin pigment (skin pigmentation, protects from environment)
langerhans cells
- macrophages
- protects the skin by “eating” infections that come into contact with the skin
what makes keratinocytes die?
basal cells keep dividing, pushing out keratinocytes, the further pushed out they are the further they are from blood supply, so devoid of nutrients and oxygen they will die
what is the lifespan of a keratinocyte?
30-40 day lifespan
cornification / coenocytes
layer of dead cells
skin cancer is called ________
melanomas
an important player in UVB-induced apoptosis is the transcription factor ______
p53
sebaceous glands produce _________
sebum (oily, sticky secretion)
acne vulgaris
plugged hair follicle or excess sebum secretion, bacteria love it and will make inflammation response causing acne or blackheads
when trying to pop a pimple, the _______ layer does NOT have blood vessels, so if you make yourself bleed you have cut into the ____________
keratin; epidermis
lanolin
wax secreted by the sebaceous glands of wool-bearing animals
exocrine sweat glands
- most common
- hypnotic sweat
- all over body
apocrine sweat glands
- large and deep
- make other compounds
- associated with hair follicles
during cold stress, what happens to the blood vessels?
- heat is retained
- vasoconstriction (blood goes deep into the body)
during heat stress, what happens to the blood vessels?
- heat is dissipated
- vasodilation (heat loss through radiation and convection)
5 cardinal signs of inflammation
- redness (rubor)
- heat (calor)
- pain (dolor)
- swelling (tumor)
- loss of function (functio laesa)
acute
short term, very painful
chronic
pain lasts forever
the mast cell is part of the __________ system
immune
the mast cell is known for releasing _____________
histamine
when does the mast cell release histamine?
when encountering an antigen they don’t recognize it triggers a response, the mast cell will degranulate releasing histamine causing inflammation
main difference between mast cell and basophil
- mast cells are in tissue
- basophil is in blood
mast cell vs basophil
- mast cell: in tissue, many granules, membrane projections, large size, lives months, round nucleus
- basophil: in blood, few granules, smooth muscle, small size, lives days, lobed nucleus
mast cells and basophils arise from a ___________ stem cell precursor in the bone marrow
common
what activates mast cells
- receptor-binding agonists
- physical activators
- cell-cell contact
what is released from mast cells (stored in granules)
- performed mediators
- T and B cell ligands
- newly synthesized mediators
steps of healing
- clotting
- healing
- angiogenesis
- primary union or secondary union
angiogenesis
replace blood vessels
primary union
healing a narrow gap (small wound)
secondary union
healing a gaping wound (big wound)
granulation tissue
- primary tissue to fill in a wound
- appears red and bumpy, highly vascular, made up of macrophages
cytokines
activate fibroblasts (to make collagen, trigger endothelialization, and help form blood vessels)
atrophy
wastage, degeneration, decline, loss of mass
“old age diseases”
heart conditions, type 2 diabetes, cancer
nervous system + endocrine system
signaling systems
nervous system uses ________ and ___________ signals
uses electrical and chemical signals
endocrine system uses only ___________ signals
chemical
endocrine _________ produce hormones, transported in ________ (mostly), binds to receptors on _________ cells
organs (glands); blood; target
why do hormones need receptors on target cells?
since hormones are transported by blood a lot of the body is exposed to the hormones, so only the ones with a receptor for the hormone will have a response
be able to identify all endocrine glands and identify anatomical structures!!!!!!
4 main classes of hormones
- amine hormones
- peptide hormone
- protein hormone
- steroid hormone
components of amine hormones
amino acids with modified groups
components of peptide hormones
short chains linked amino acids
components of protein hormones
long chains of linked amino acids
components of steroid hormones
derived from the lipid cholesterol
examples of amine hormone
norepinephrine and epinephrine
example of peptide hormone
oxytocin
example of a protein hormone
human growth hormone
examples of steroid hormones
testosterone, progesterone
list the 4 main classes of hormones from biggest to smallest
protein hormone, peptide hormone, steroid hormone, amine hormone
which hormones have receptors on the membrane?
protein and peptide hormones
which hormones have receptors inside the cell / in the cytoplasm?
steroid and amino hormones
what does the synthesis of norepinephrine and epinephrine look like?
tyrosine —-> norepinephrine —(add a methyl)–> epinephrine
epinephrine
increases heat rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels (also dilates airways)
norepinephrine
increases blood pressure by constricting blood vessels (also enhances alertness and focus)
binding of lipid-soluble hormones
- hormone diffuses through membrane
- binds to receptor in cytoplasm
- enters nucleus and triggers gene transcription
- transcribed mRNA is translated into proteins that alter cell activity
which is faster: steroid hormones to protein hormones?
protein hormones are faster
Unlike endocrine glands, exocrine glands have ______ to secrete outside the cell
Ducts
Zonula occludens vs zonula adherens
Zonula Occludens is a type of tight junction while Zonula adherens is an anchoring junction
