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Physiology > Exam 1: January 9-20 > Flashcards

Exam 1: January 9-20 Flashcards

1
Q

what color was Bronson’s shirt the first day?

A

teal

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2
Q

what is physiology?

A

how an organism accomplished actions to live from one moment to another

what’s the purpose we have for that particular action and the particular physiology that solves that action?

ex. why do we breathe? to get oxygen

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3
Q

what are the two ways we accomplish certain actions in our bodies?

A

ion distributions and protein activities

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4
Q

what are ion distributions?

A

the only way your nervous system works is by ion distributions changing

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5
Q

what are protein activities?

A

your body runs on how proteins do things

proteins are needed to structure, allow muscles to move, help run chemical reactions by acting as enzymes

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6
Q

cell and system activities like RBC and renal system

A

??

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7
Q

what are the four critical equations?

A

ATP ←→ ADP + Pi + energy

Glucose + O2 + ADP + Pi → ATP + CO2 + H2O + heat

CO2 + H2O ←→ HCO3- + H+

PV=nRT

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8
Q

what is the first critical equation? what does it mean?

A

ATP ←→ ADP + Pi + energy

you need energy to do different things - how much do you have to spend to do each job? how are you going to spend it?

our currency to pay for activities is ATP

the equation goes both ways!

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9
Q

what does ATP stand for?

A

adenosine triphosphate

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10
Q

what is the second critical equation? what does it mean?

A

Glucose + O2 + ADP + Pi → ATP + CO2 + H2O + heat

how much do we have to spend? how do we make the currency?

this is the backwoods form of equation 1! ADP + Pi –> ATP but it only goes in one direction - if we were plants we could run the equation the other way but humans can’t

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11
Q

what’s another name for glucose?

A

sugar or carbohydrate

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12
Q

what are the reactants and products of critical equation 2?

A

reactants: glucose, O2, ADP, Pi
products: ATP

side products: CO2 and H2O

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13
Q

what is the third critical equation? what does it mean?

A

CO2 + H2O ←→ HCO3- + H+

we breathe out to get rid of CO2 and to do this we have to be able to transport CO2 in our blood

CO2 and H2O are products of equation 2

CO2 doesn’t move well through our blood so we change it into bicarbonate which solves our transportation problem so that we can move CO2 through our liquid blood in order to exhale CO2

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14
Q

What’s the problem with critical equation 3?

A

CO2 + H2O ←→ HCO3- + H+

the H+ formed when converting CO2 to HCO3- causes an acidity problem as the H+ alters the pH

we have a benefit/cost ratio so you have to look at the trade offs

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15
Q

what is the fourth critical equation?

A

PV=nRT

ideal gas law

also works for liquid too = stomach, heart, lungs

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16
Q

what does homeostasis literally translate to?

A

homeo = same

stasis = status

what we do with all our systems is to maintain homeostasis

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17
Q

what is homeostasis?

A

the relatively stable maintenance of a body parameter

also known as dynamic constancy

it’s not precise, there are dips in the “flat”parts of the graph of blood levels of glucose vs. time of day

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18
Q

describe the glucose vs. time of the day graph

A

glucose (mg/dL) vs. time

there are “flat” lines and then there are spikes in sugar levels after a meal

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19
Q

what is SP?

A

set point

goal range!

for glucose we want the number to be around 90 mg/dL

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20
Q

what is SS?

A

steady state

when we are meeting our goal = when we are maintaining our bodies at our SP

breakfast, lunch and dinner throw us out of steady state

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21
Q

what’s the difference between SS and SP?

A

set point is our goal and steady state is if we are maintaining our goal

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22
Q

what is a homeostatic control system?

A

interconnected components that work together to keep us at the SP

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23
Q

what happens when we disrupt SS?

A

when we disrupt the steady state there are various parts of our physiology that are working to maintain SS that aren’t being successful at the moment that will then kick in to get us back to SS

they’re always working but have to do more when we’re not in SS

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24
Q

is SS equilibrium?

A

at steady state, we’re not changing but this requires energy to maintain!!

SS is NOT equilibrium because equilibrium means we’re not not using any energy

energy is limited because you have to make ATP - if one control system needs to be doing more, something else has to lose aka trade offs

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25
Q

is there is a disturbance from SS, what are the two things you can do?

A

be reactive of proactive

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26
Q

what is being reactive? what are the two types?

A

having a response to a disturbance = feedback

you make an adjustment as a result of the disturbance

you can have negative or positive feedback

98% is negative feedback because you typically want to get back to SS

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27
Q

what is negative feedback?

A

reactive: you come back to SS

Bronson was the disturbance pushing the TA and his response is to come back in the opposite direction of the disturbance & goes toward SS

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28
Q

what is positive feedback?

A

reactive

the TA gets pushed and keeps going in that direction

the response is to continue in the direction of the disturbance and move away from SS

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29
Q

what is being proactive?

A

preparation = feed forward (FF)

limits the degree of feedback required –combined energy needed is less when the TA anticipates that he’s going to be pushed

if you can anticipate a disturbance and prepare you don’t waste as much energy

reactive responses cost more energy but with a proactive response, less energy is required

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30
Q

which response to a disturbance requires less energy?

A

proactive because you can prepare

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31
Q

what are two types of homeostatic control systems?

A

relex template (arc)

biorhythms

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32
Q

what are the steps in a reflex template (arc)?

A

1) deviation in controlled variable
2) sensor/receptor
3) integrator (integrating center)
4) effectors
5) compensatory response = change in physiology
6) controlled variable restored

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33
Q

what does a sensor do?

A

the part of the reflex template that recognizes that your body has undergone a change

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34
Q

what does the integrator do?

A

the part of the reflex arc that can make a determination as to if you’re still at your set point

usually your central nervous system = brain or sometimes a glad/organ

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35
Q

what is the afferent pathway?

A

the pathway between the sensor/receptor and the integrator in the reflex arc

goes towards to integrator

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36
Q

what are effectors?

A

can be your muscles telling you take your sweater off if it’s how or your pancreas telling your body to collect more glucose if blood sugar is low

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37
Q

what if the efferent pathway?

A

the pathway between the integrator and the effector

goes away”from the integrator

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38
Q

what is the compensatory response?

A

the sweater coming off and being thrown away

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39
Q

what are the keys to the reflex arc?

A

detection, integration and adjustment

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40
Q

what is detection?

A

need to be able to detect the change – need detectors that can feel the change in temperature – need to be able to detect both internal and external changes!

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41
Q

what is integration?

A

we bring in information and process it – maybe your upper body is hot but your lower body is fine because you’re wearing shorts – compare to set point (core temperature) – make a decision if you’re still at your SP within that range, either too high or too low

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42
Q

what is adjustment?

A

only necessary if we’ve gone away from set point – we only continue past integrating center IF it determines that we need to make a change

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43
Q

what is the result of the reflex arc?

A

since we restore the controlled variable, it’s a form of negative feedback

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44
Q

how could you turn the reflex arc into positive feed back or feed forward?

A

we could also give positive feedback if instead of restoring the variable feedback we keep changing – so we get a bigger change happening so receptors register bigger change which send it to the integrating center which decides if we should keep going

we could develop FF – coming in a tank top and shorts – so when you do have the change it’s less because you’ve anticipated it

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45
Q

what’s an example of a biorhythm?

A

cortisol levels based on the time of day - cortisol levels are high when you wake up and decrease throughout the day

growth hormone peaks at the beginning of when you’re sleeping

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46
Q

what are variations with controlled variable in a biorhythm?

A

duration of presence and timing of presence

duration: ? go listen
timing: cortisol peaks at end of sleeping

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47
Q

what are the types of biorhythms?

A

circadian, lunar and annual

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48
Q

what are examples of daily, annual, and lunar biorhythms?

A

Daily circadian pattern: cortisol levels

Annual circadian pattern: losing your hair in the spring, shedding less in the fall, gaining weight in the winter, better to lose weight in the spring because fat is heat and you don’t want that in the summer

Lunar circadian pattern: you’re more active during a full moon

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49
Q

are biorhythms proactive or reactive? is the trigger internal or external?

A

proactive

they’re an example of feed forward! our body can anticipate that the sun is going to come up in the morning and this is when we’re more active

trigger is internal since it’s feed forward so we have a series of clocks that help us establish these rhythms (the stimulus would be external if it’s feedback)

we aren’t relying on the environment for initial trigger – we don’t need to see the sun to get tired at night

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50
Q

how do biorhythms set us up for survival?

A

we can save energy in one area so we can spend it somewhere else

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51
Q

are biorhythms adaptations or adjustments?

A

adaptations!!!

adaptations are genetic change**

adjustments are not adaptations

52
Q

what is acclimatization?

A

to adjust we need to reset the clock = we’re changing the set point

we can only adjust the clock a little and it’s not very easy to do – a quick change is jet lag – slow changes is seasons

it’s use-based so you can change your set point again if you come home from Hawaii – you’re NOT changing the genetics, it’s not an adaptation to get over jet lag – it’s an individual change, not a group/species change

usually reversible

53
Q

what type of acclimatization is a clock reset?

A

environmental

like if you get on a plane and go to another time zone because the sun is rising and setting at a different time that you’re used to but you can only adjust at a limited time each day so you’re jet lagged – or getting used to the water in Mexico because all you’re doing is getting used to the bacteria in the water

54
Q

what is an irreversible acclimatization?

A

developmental acclimatization

ex. outward appearance of your sex
e. lead in water in Flint, MI changes brain development of kids irreversibly
ex. fetal alcohol syndrome

55
Q

what are the two types of intercellular communications?

A

direct and indirect communication

56
Q

what are the types of direct communication?

A

gap junctions, tunneling nanotubes, and juxtacrines

57
Q

what are gap junctions?

A

direct communication

the cells are connected and communicating via short, narrow channels created by proteins that exist to create this connection – narrow means there’s a limitation of what can fit through – like tunnels on med campus

can change the number of gap junctions so not always permanent

58
Q

what are tunneling nanotubes?

A

direct communication

they are longer connectors which allow cells to be farther apart and they’re also wider than the gap junctions

59
Q

what are juxtacrines?

A

direct communication

two cells come together to make a juxtacrine interaction like train cars – they’re transient protein connections between membranes; not permanent

this communication does NOT involve moving compounds through this protein, it’s not a tunnel, it’s just a connection

it’s valuable for your immune system to be able to recognize cells as supposed to be there and communicate with cells that are having issues so that they can fix themselves or destroy themselves

60
Q

what is indirect communication?

A

means there isn’t touching between the cells so you have to release something from one cell which gets caught by the next cell

they are extracellular signals = chemical messengers

61
Q

what are the types of indirect communication?

A

paracrine, neurotransmitters, and endocrine

62
Q

what are paracrine cells?

A

indirect communication

can be released from almost all cells, there are few cells that can’t communicate with paracrines however paracrines can only move by diffusion so therefore they can only move to nearby cells kind of like talking in a whisper so only near by people can hear

they travel via fluid between cells

a special case of paracrines is an autocrine which means that the paracrine is released and sent back to itself kind of like writing a note to yourself

63
Q

what are neurotransmitters?

A

indirect communication

transmitters of the nervous system and only come from neurons and go to whatever the adjoining cell is such as an effector like a muscle or organ (lots of options)

travel through the synapse connection via fluid between cells to just one individual cell: like cupping your hands and whispering to one specific person

64
Q

what are endocrine cells?

A

indirection communications

typically known as hormones

come only from a glad or neuron and can go to distant cells because of their pathway since they can travel via the blood which goes everywhere

there’s a special case of if they get released by neurons they get called neurohormones

65
Q

know how to compare and contrast the contrasts indirect communications! X and Y can be combined because they have AAA in common while Z does BBB

A

1) paracrine and neurotransmitters can be combined because they travel via the fluid between the cells while endocrine cells travel via the blood
2) paracrine and neurotransmitters can be combines because they only travel short distances while endocrine cells can go to distant cells since they travel via the blood/plasma and not diffusion/synapse connections
3) neurotransmitters and endocrine can be combined because they can only be secreted from specific areas (neurons/glands and neurons) while paracrine can be secreted from almost all cells

66
Q

how many cells did you start out as?

A

you started out as one cell and since fertilization you’ve multiplied that cell

67
Q

what are the contents of a cell?

A

1) genome
2) proteome
3) lipidome

68
Q

what is the genome?

A

identical DNA for all cells - cells are replicated via mitosis so they all get exact copy of DNA

DNA is a blueprint/library - we don’t have to make all the proteins, you just have to make certain ones based on what cell you’re looking at

69
Q

does the RBC have a genome?

A

no - it did when it was created but not any more

there’s no nucleus in your RBC so there’s no way to get DNA from them

70
Q

what is a proteome?

A

the protein make up of a cell - different proteins in different cells based on their functions

71
Q

what is the lipidome?

A

different lipids - lipids are also called fats

we have different fats present in different cells

72
Q

are the genome, proteome and lipidome the same in all cells?

A

genome is the same in all cells

the proteome and lipidome are different between cells

73
Q

what is specialization/differentiation of cells?

A

you can take someone with a bad kidney but a great liver and use some of those cells to become kidney cells – that way the cells have the same genome

once stuff gets specialized it doesn’t go back – liver cell can’t become a heart cell – a cell will stay on its pathway = developmental acclimatization = irreversible!

74
Q

what are the primary types of cells?

A

1) epithelial
2) muscle
3) neurons
4) connective cells

75
Q

what are epithelial cells?

A

out/in boundary:create the boundary between what’s outside of us and what’s inside of us

they are in your skin, GI track prevents things from getting into your cell area, respiratory system prevents passage of coughs/sneezes with pathogens but allows oxygen to come in, urinary track

76
Q

what is a muscle cell?

A

mechanical movement

movement of skeletal muscles to do gestures, muscles associated with diaphragm to create wind movement to vibrate vocal cords so that you can talk, or heart pumping blood so you can get oxygen

77
Q

what are neurons?

A

electrical communication cells

they coordinate things and are a huge part of the reflex arc to accomplish things in your body

78
Q

what are connective cells?

A

support

generally help connect and do support activities for the other three types of cells – include bone, blood cells, adipose cells that store energy to later make ATP

79
Q

what are the types of groups of cells?

A

tissues and then organs

80
Q

what are tissues?

A

the first grouping of cells you can do it create tissues by putting together cells from the same cell type

81
Q

what are organs?

A

a combination of tissues

doesn’t have to have all 4 types of cells - your heart doesn’t have epithelial cells and there’s some other things in you body also missing this

82
Q

what is skin?

A

it’s not a tissue, it’s an organ!

you’re also taking neurons when you remove a piece of skin – there’s also muscle cells like when you get goose bumps – and there’s connective because when you remove skin you’ll bleed

83
Q

what are functional units?

A

it’s the smallest part of the organ that you can look at and see the overall function of that particular organ

organs have a component to them called functional unit that you don’t see in tissues or cells – they provide function and are a unit of function – most organs have multiple functional units but not all do

84
Q

do all organs have more than one functional unit?

A

NO! the heart only have one functional unit!

You can’t break down the heart and just look at one chamber or one cardiac cell

85
Q

what are sperm and eggs?

A

gametes

NOT cells from mitosis

86
Q

what is redundancy?

A

we have functional units for redundancy so that if one of them fails there are others that can continue working; we damage some but others are fine – this lack of redundancy is where we see a problem with the heart

is there a way to support someone with their own heart? If the heart isn’t strong enough, instead of replacing the heart, the doctors gave them a second heart until the first one got strong enough then took out the second heart and gave that one to someone else

87
Q

what is expansion?

A

another reason for functional groups is for expansion so that we can add without stopping – we keep adding functional units as we get older and bigger and never lose our liver function in that process –

we don’t need as much skin when we’re little but we can add more as we get bigger – we can add nephrons to our kidneys as we get older

88
Q

what are the two benefits of functional groups?

A

1) redundancy

2) expansion

89
Q

what’s an organ system?

A

not a single organ but a collection of organs that are working together for a related function

90
Q

what are examples of organ systems?

A

circulatory system, endocrine system, immune system, respiratory system –

91
Q

what do organ systems act as?

A

homeostatic control systems

they aren’t matched exactly but it’s one way to look at them – getting oxygen out or controlling glucose levels plays a role in the circulatory system – we also need our digestive system to get our glucose into our body

92
Q

how many organ systems are there?

A

11

93
Q

what is different between organ systems and organs, tissues and cells?

A

unlike our organs, tissues and cells, these systems can be overlapping or grouped within other groups

for example, our endocrine system uses indirect signals and has to rely on our circulatory system because we know that’s how endocrine gets from cell A to cell B

94
Q

what kind of signals does our endocrine system use?

A

indirect

95
Q

are we just a group of cells?

A

If there’s a gun that removed all the cells in someone’s body, would the person disappear?

No. We would still see almost everything about her – we aren’t just cells – if you remove the rooms from a building the building is still there

the extracellular matrix!!!!

96
Q

what is the extracellular matrix?

A

it’s a supporting structure created BY cells called fibroblasts which are connective cells – it’s a meshwork of long, thin, fibrous proteins that are kind of like a spider web

97
Q

what proteins make up the extracellular matrix?

A

collagen, elastin, and fibronectin?

98
Q

what’s collagen?

A

A type of fibrous protein that is long and thin and acts kind of like a rope

collagen can connect two cells and you can move the cells relative to each other

if you keep trying to move them apart the collagen is going to become taught and you can only move them so far apart from each other

99
Q

what is elastin?

A

“rubberbands” – things can go farther apart but spring back together – we want elastin in our face so that when we smile our face goes back to normal

most “collagen” injections are actually mostly elastin

100
Q

what is fibronectin?

A

“connector”

helps us connect our cell to our collagen or from our cell to our elastin

101
Q

what is the extracellular matrix made of?

A

fibrous proteins and vicious water made with carbohydrate structures

102
Q

what are the 4 the purposes of the ECM?

A

1) it’s the bio-glue that holds all your cell together and gives you structure
2) ECM also influences the cells in the area around you – cells can’t just be put in a petri dish because they need the ECM – the ECM makes sure that the cells stay on the right path and continue to survive and don’t end their lives – when you put a cell in a petri dish the cell just dies
3) ECM needs to communicate with cells so that they continue to grow and thrive
4) ECM also causes differentiation - a cell becomes a liver cell because it’s in the area near the ECM associated with the liver

103
Q

what kind of cells make the ECM?

A

fibroblasts

104
Q

what are the three fluid compartments?

A

1) intracellular
extracellular
2) interstitial fluid
3) plasma

105
Q

what is the intracellular fluid compartment?

A

ICF intra = within

the water within the cells which the cytosol

the largest compartment! 67% of the fluid

106
Q

what is the interstitial fluid?

A

extracellular fluid between the cells

second largest compartment! 26%

this is also the viscous water made by viscous by inner carbohydrate structures

107
Q

what is plasma?

A

the water portion of the blood

the smallest fluid compartment! 7%

108
Q

how many fluid compartment barriers are there? what are they?

A

there’s the largest amount of sodium in our blood, a little in the interstitial fluid and almost none in our cells – if there weren’t barriers there would be the same amount in each compartment

1) cellular plasma membrane
2) blood vessel walls

109
Q

what is the plasma membrane?

A

separates fluid between the intracellular fluid compartment and the interstitial fluid

it’s the outside membrane of our cells - keeps the sodium out and the potassium in

110
Q

what are the blood vessel walls?

A

separates the interstitial fluid and the plasma

capillary walls are where you can see the exchange happening = endothelial cells!

111
Q

what are iona?

A

compounds that have a charge

they are electrolytes!! because they have a charge/electrical component to them

112
Q

what are the two types of ions?

A

cations: net positive
anions: net negative

113
Q

do electrons travel alone?

A

electrons don’t like to travel around solo so a compound with an extra electron will give it up to become positive or pick another one up to become negative

114
Q

what are free radicals?

A

they have a single electron in their outer orbit

electrons don’t like to be alone so it will remove an electron from another compound

115
Q

what kind of agents are free radicals?

A

oxidizing agents

don’t like to be alone so it removes an electron from another compound

lots of food has anti-oxidants which create less free radicals

116
Q

do our levels of free radical vary within our body?

A

yes - we have a set point for our free radicals that we can adjust because sometimes we ingest them and we also produce them!

117
Q

why do we produce free radicals?

A

production is intentional and is done via the immune system - effective against pathogens

when we are ill, our free radicals increase because we can use them to take an electron away from pathogens that are doing us harm so they can’t do their jobs as well and now the immune system can defeat them using other things

the bad things is that free radicals don’t care where they get the electron from (indiscriminate) will take from nearby – if no pathogen is around then they’ll start pulling electrons from your healthy cells

118
Q

what’s the problem with our immune system using free radicals?

A

we have to be able to neutralize free radicals via donors or antioxidants

119
Q

what are examples of antioxidants?

A

vitamin A and vitamin D

they neutralize free radicals!

120
Q

what are examples of free radicals?

A

superoxide anions (O2-)

nitrix oxide (NO)

hydroxyl radical OH-

121
Q

what are covalent bonds?

A

they are the strongest bond!

caused by the sharing of a pair(s) of electrons rather than the moving of bonds

now always equally shared which causes partial charges so that electrons being shared can be closer or further away from an element in a covalent bond

122
Q

what’s an amphipathic compound?

A

half and half polar and nonpolar

123
Q

what’s are types noncovalent bond?

A

1) ionic bonds
2) hydrogen bonding
3) hydrophobic interactions

124
Q

what are ionic bonds?

A

noncovalent bonds

electrical attraction of opposites

very strong bond but very weak in water and therefore in physiology so for us it’s weak

125
Q

what is a hydrogen bond?

A

noncovalent bond

an interaction with bound hydrogen - weak bond

126
Q

what are hydrophobic interactions?

A

nocovalent bond

the non polar areas avoid water

weak, help creates the plasma membrane

Physiology (15 decks)

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