Exam 1: January 9-20 Flashcards
1
Q
what color was Bronson’s shirt the first day?
A
teal
2
Q
what is physiology?
A
how an organism accomplished actions to live from one moment to another
what’s the purpose we have for that particular action and the particular physiology that solves that action?
ex. why do we breathe? to get oxygen
3
Q
what are the two ways we accomplish certain actions in our bodies?
A
ion distributions and protein activities
4
Q
what are ion distributions?
A
the only way your nervous system works is by ion distributions changing
5
Q
what are protein activities?
A
your body runs on how proteins do things
proteins are needed to structure, allow muscles to move, help run chemical reactions by acting as enzymes
6
Q
cell and system activities like RBC and renal system
A
??
7
Q
what are the four critical equations?
A
ATP ←→ ADP + Pi + energy
Glucose + O2 + ADP + Pi → ATP + CO2 + H2O + heat
CO2 + H2O ←→ HCO3- + H+
PV=nRT
8
Q
what is the first critical equation? what does it mean?
A
ATP ←→ ADP + Pi + energy
you need energy to do different things - how much do you have to spend to do each job? how are you going to spend it?
our currency to pay for activities is ATP
the equation goes both ways!
9
Q
what does ATP stand for?
A
adenosine triphosphate
10
Q
what is the second critical equation? what does it mean?
A
Glucose + O2 + ADP + Pi → ATP + CO2 + H2O + heat
how much do we have to spend? how do we make the currency?
this is the backwoods form of equation 1! ADP + Pi –> ATP but it only goes in one direction - if we were plants we could run the equation the other way but humans can’t
11
Q
what’s another name for glucose?
A
sugar or carbohydrate
12
Q
what are the reactants and products of critical equation 2?
A
reactants: glucose, O2, ADP, Pi
products: ATP
side products: CO2 and H2O
13
Q
what is the third critical equation? what does it mean?
A
CO2 + H2O ←→ HCO3- + H+
we breathe out to get rid of CO2 and to do this we have to be able to transport CO2 in our blood
CO2 and H2O are products of equation 2
CO2 doesn’t move well through our blood so we change it into bicarbonate which solves our transportation problem so that we can move CO2 through our liquid blood in order to exhale CO2
14
Q
What’s the problem with critical equation 3?
A
CO2 + H2O ←→ HCO3- + H+
the H+ formed when converting CO2 to HCO3- causes an acidity problem as the H+ alters the pH
we have a benefit/cost ratio so you have to look at the trade offs
15
Q
what is the fourth critical equation?
A
PV=nRT
ideal gas law
also works for liquid too = stomach, heart, lungs
16
Q
what does homeostasis literally translate to?
A
homeo = same
stasis = status
what we do with all our systems is to maintain homeostasis
17
Q
what is homeostasis?
A
the relatively stable maintenance of a body parameter
also known as dynamic constancy
it’s not precise, there are dips in the “flat”parts of the graph of blood levels of glucose vs. time of day
18
Q
describe the glucose vs. time of the day graph
A
glucose (mg/dL) vs. time
there are “flat” lines and then there are spikes in sugar levels after a meal
19
Q
what is SP?
A
set point
goal range!
for glucose we want the number to be around 90 mg/dL
20
Q
what is SS?
A
steady state
when we are meeting our goal = when we are maintaining our bodies at our SP
breakfast, lunch and dinner throw us out of steady state
21
Q
what’s the difference between SS and SP?
A
set point is our goal and steady state is if we are maintaining our goal
22
Q
what is a homeostatic control system?
A
interconnected components that work together to keep us at the SP
23
Q
what happens when we disrupt SS?
A
when we disrupt the steady state there are various parts of our physiology that are working to maintain SS that aren’t being successful at the moment that will then kick in to get us back to SS
they’re always working but have to do more when we’re not in SS
24
Q
is SS equilibrium?
A
at steady state, we’re not changing but this requires energy to maintain!!
SS is NOT equilibrium because equilibrium means we’re not not using any energy
energy is limited because you have to make ATP - if one control system needs to be doing more, something else has to lose aka trade offs
25
is there is a disturbance from SS, what are the two things you can do?
be reactive of proactive
26
what is being reactive? what are the two types?
having a response to a disturbance = feedback
you make an adjustment as a result of the disturbance
you can have negative or positive feedback
98% is negative feedback because you typically want to get back to SS
27
what is negative feedback?
reactive: you come back to SS
Bronson was the disturbance pushing the TA and his response is to come back in the *opposite direction of the disturbance & goes toward SS*
28
what is positive feedback?
reactive
the TA gets pushed and keeps going in that direction
the response is to continue in the direction of the disturbance and move away from SS
29
what is being proactive?
preparation = feed forward (FF)
limits the degree of feedback required –combined energy needed is less when the TA anticipates that he’s going to be pushed
if you can anticipate a disturbance and prepare you don’t waste as much energy
reactive responses cost more energy but with a proactive response, less energy is required
30
which response to a disturbance requires less energy?
proactive because you can prepare
31
what are two types of homeostatic control systems?
relex template (arc)
biorhythms
32
what are the steps in a reflex template (arc)?
1) deviation in controlled variable
2) sensor/receptor
3) integrator (integrating center)
4) effectors
5) compensatory response = change in physiology
6) controlled variable restored
33
what does a sensor do?
the part of the reflex template that recognizes that your body has undergone a change
34
what does the integrator do?
the part of the reflex arc that can make a determination as to if you're still at your set point
usually your central nervous system = brain or sometimes a glad/organ
35
what is the afferent pathway?
the pathway between the sensor/receptor and the integrator in the reflex arc
goes *towards* to integrator
36
what are effectors?
can be your muscles telling you take your sweater off if it's how or your pancreas telling your body to collect more glucose if blood sugar is low
37
what if the efferent pathway?
the pathway between the integrator and the effector
goes away"from the integrator
38
what is the compensatory response?
the sweater coming off and being thrown away
39
what are the keys to the reflex arc?
detection, integration and adjustment
40
what is detection?
need to be able to detect the change – need detectors that can feel the change in temperature – need to be able to detect both internal and external changes!
41
what is integration?
we bring in information and process it – maybe your upper body is hot but your lower body is fine because you’re wearing shorts – compare to set point (core temperature) – make a decision if you’re still at your SP within that range, either too high or too low
42
what is adjustment?
only necessary if we’ve gone away from set point – we only continue past integrating center IF it determines that we need to make a change
43
what is the result of the reflex arc?
since we restore the controlled variable, it's a form of negative feedback
44
how could you turn the reflex arc into positive feed back or feed forward?
we could also give positive feedback if instead of restoring the variable feedback we keep changing – so we get a bigger change happening so receptors register bigger change which send it to the integrating center which decides if we should keep going
we could develop FF – coming in a tank top and shorts – so when you do have the change it’s less because you’ve anticipated it
45
what's an example of a biorhythm?
cortisol levels based on the time of day - cortisol levels are high when you wake up and decrease throughout the day
growth hormone peaks at the beginning of when you’re sleeping
46
what are variations with controlled variable in a biorhythm?
duration of presence and timing of presence
duration: ? go listen
timing: cortisol peaks at end of sleeping
47
what are the types of biorhythms?
circadian, lunar and annual
48
what are examples of daily, annual, and lunar biorhythms?
Daily circadian pattern: cortisol levels
Annual circadian pattern: losing your hair in the spring, shedding less in the fall, gaining weight in the winter, better to lose weight in the spring because fat is heat and you don’t want that in the summer
Lunar circadian pattern: you’re more active during a full moon
49
are biorhythms proactive or reactive? is the trigger internal or external?
proactive
they're an example of feed forward! our body can anticipate that the sun is going to come up in the morning and this is when we’re more active
trigger is *internal* since it’s feed forward so we have a series of clocks that help us establish these rhythms (the stimulus would be external if it’s feedback)
we aren’t relying on the environment for initial trigger – we don’t need to see the sun to get tired at night
50
how do biorhythms set us up for survival?
we can save energy in one area so we can spend it somewhere else
51
are biorhythms adaptations or adjustments?
adaptations!!!
adaptations are genetic change**
adjustments are not adaptations
52
what is acclimatization?
to adjust we need to reset the clock = we’re changing the set point
we can only adjust the clock a little and it’s not very easy to do – a quick change is jet lag – slow changes is seasons
it’s use-based so you can change your set point again if you come home from Hawaii – you’re NOT changing the genetics, it’s not an adaptation to get over jet lag – it’s an *individual* change, not a group/species change
usually reversible
53
what type of acclimatization is a clock reset?
environmental
like if you get on a plane and go to another time zone because the sun is rising and setting at a different time that you’re used to but you can only adjust at a limited time each day so you’re jet lagged – or getting used to the water in Mexico because all you’re doing is getting used to the bacteria in the water
54
what is an irreversible acclimatization?
developmental acclimatization
ex. outward appearance of your sex
e. lead in water in Flint, MI changes brain development of kids irreversibly
ex. fetal alcohol syndrome
55
what are the two types of intercellular communications?
direct and indirect communication
56
what are the types of direct communication?
gap junctions, tunneling nanotubes, and juxtacrines
57
what are gap junctions?
direct communication
the cells are connected and communicating via short, narrow channels created by proteins that exist to create this connection – narrow means there’s a limitation of what can fit through – like tunnels on med campus
can change the number of gap junctions so not always permanent
58
what are tunneling nanotubes?
direct communication
they are longer connectors which allow cells to be farther apart and they’re also wider than the gap junctions
59
what are juxtacrines?
direct communication
two cells come together to make a juxtacrine interaction like train cars – they’re transient protein connections between membranes; not permanent
this communication does NOT involve moving compounds through this protein, it’s not a tunnel, it’s just a connection
it’s valuable for your immune system to be able to recognize cells as supposed to be there and communicate with cells that are having issues so that they can fix themselves or destroy themselves
60
what is indirect communication?
means there isn’t touching between the cells so you have to release something from one cell which gets caught by the next cell
they are extracellular signals = chemical messengers
61
what are the types of indirect communication?
paracrine, neurotransmitters, and endocrine
62
what are paracrine cells?
indirect communication
can be released from almost all cells, there are few cells that can’t communicate with paracrines however paracrines can only move by diffusion so therefore they can only move to nearby cells kind of like talking in a whisper so only near by people can hear
they travel via fluid between cells
a special case of paracrines is an autocrine which means that the paracrine is released and sent back to itself kind of like writing a note to yourself
63
what are neurotransmitters?
indirect communication
transmitters of the nervous system and only come from neurons and go to whatever the adjoining cell is such as an effector like a muscle or organ (lots of options)
travel through the synapse connection via fluid between cells to just one individual cell: like cupping your hands and whispering to one specific person
64
what are endocrine cells?
indirection communications
typically known as hormones
come only from a glad or neuron and can go to distant cells because of their pathway since they can travel via the blood which goes everywhere
there’s a special case of if they get released by neurons they get called neurohormones
65
know how to compare and contrast the contrasts indirect communications! X and Y can be combined because they have AAA in common while Z does BBB
1) paracrine and neurotransmitters can be combined because they travel via the fluid between the cells while endocrine cells travel via the blood
2) paracrine and neurotransmitters can be combines because they only travel short distances while endocrine cells can go to distant cells since they travel via the blood/plasma and not diffusion/synapse connections
3) neurotransmitters and endocrine can be combined because they can only be secreted from specific areas (neurons/glands and neurons) while paracrine can be secreted from almost all cells
66
how many cells did you start out as?
you started out as one cell and since fertilization you’ve multiplied that cell
67
what are the contents of a cell?
1) genome
2) proteome
3) lipidome
68
what is the genome?
identical DNA for all cells - cells are replicated via mitosis so they all get exact copy of DNA
DNA is a blueprint/library - we don’t have to make all the proteins, you just have to make certain ones based on what cell you’re looking at
69
does the RBC have a genome?
no - it did when it was created but not any more
there's no nucleus in your RBC so there's no way to get DNA from them
70
what is a proteome?
the protein make up of a cell - different proteins in different cells based on their functions
71
what is the lipidome?
different lipids - lipids are also called fats
we have different fats present in different cells
72
are the genome, proteome and lipidome the same in all cells?
genome is the same in all cells
the proteome and lipidome are different between cells
73
what is specialization/differentiation of cells?
you can take someone with a bad kidney but a great liver and use some of those cells to become kidney cells – that way the cells have the same genome
once stuff gets specialized it doesn’t go back – liver cell can’t become a heart cell – a cell will stay on its pathway = developmental acclimatization = irreversible!
74
what are the primary types of cells?
1) epithelial
2) muscle
3) neurons
4) connective cells
75
what are epithelial cells?
out/in boundary:create the boundary between what’s outside of us and what’s inside of us
they are in your skin, GI track prevents things from getting into your cell area, respiratory system prevents passage of coughs/sneezes with pathogens but allows oxygen to come in, urinary track
76
what is a muscle cell?
mechanical movement
movement of skeletal muscles to do gestures, muscles associated with diaphragm to create wind movement to vibrate vocal cords so that you can talk, or heart pumping blood so you can get oxygen
77
what are neurons?
electrical communication cells
they coordinate things and are a huge part of the reflex arc to accomplish things in your body
78
what are connective cells?
support
generally help connect and do support activities for the other three types of cells – include bone, blood cells, adipose cells that store energy to later make ATP
79
what are the types of groups of cells?
tissues and then organs
80
what are tissues?
the first grouping of cells you can do it create tissues by putting together cells from the same cell type
81
what are organs?
a combination of tissues
doesn't have to have all 4 types of cells - your heart doesn't have epithelial cells and there's some other things in you body also missing this
82
what is skin?
it's not a tissue, it's an organ!
you’re also taking neurons when you remove a piece of skin – there’s also muscle cells like when you get goose bumps – and there’s connective because when you remove skin you’ll bleed
83
what are functional units?
it’s the smallest part of the organ that you can look at and see the overall function of that particular organ
organs have a component to them called functional unit that you don’t see in tissues or cells – they provide function and are a unit of function – most organs have multiple functional units but not all do
84
do all organs have more than one functional unit?
NO! the heart only have one functional unit!
You can’t break down the heart and just look at one chamber or one cardiac cell
85
what are sperm and eggs?
gametes
NOT cells from mitosis
86
what is redundancy?
we have functional units for redundancy so that if one of them fails there are others that can continue working; we damage some but others are fine – this lack of redundancy is where we see a problem with the heart
is there a way to support someone with their own heart? If the heart isn’t strong enough, instead of replacing the heart, the doctors gave them a second heart until the first one got strong enough then took out the second heart and gave that one to someone else
87
what is expansion?
another reason for functional groups is for expansion so that we can add without stopping – we keep adding functional units as we get older and bigger and never lose our liver function in that process –
we don’t need as much skin when we’re little but we can add more as we get bigger – we can add nephrons to our kidneys as we get older
88
what are the two benefits of functional groups?
1) redundancy
| 2) expansion
89
what's an organ system?
not a single organ but a collection of organs that are working together for a related function
90
what are examples of organ systems?
circulatory system, endocrine system, immune system, respiratory system –
91
what do organ systems act as?
homeostatic control systems
they aren’t matched exactly but it’s one way to look at them – getting oxygen out or controlling glucose levels plays a role in the circulatory system – we also need our digestive system to get our glucose into our body
92
how many organ systems are there?
11
93
what is different between organ systems and organs, tissues and cells?
unlike our organs, tissues and cells, these systems can be overlapping or grouped within other groups
for example, our endocrine system uses indirect signals and has to rely on our circulatory system because we know that’s how endocrine gets from cell A to cell B
94
what kind of signals does our endocrine system use?
indirect
95
are we just a group of cells?
If there’s a gun that removed all the cells in someone’s body, would the person disappear?
No. We would still see almost everything about her – we aren’t just cells – if you remove the rooms from a building the building is still there
the extracellular matrix!!!!
96
what is the extracellular matrix?
it’s a supporting structure created BY cells called fibroblasts which are connective cells – it’s a meshwork of long, thin, fibrous proteins that are kind of like a spider web
97
what proteins make up the extracellular matrix?
collagen, elastin, and fibronectin?
98
what's collagen?
A type of fibrous protein that is long and thin and acts kind of like a rope
collagen can connect two cells and you can move the cells relative to each other
if you keep trying to move them apart the collagen is going to become taught and you can only move them so far apart from each other
99
what is elastin?
“rubberbands” – things can go farther apart but spring back together – we want elastin in our face so that when we smile our face goes back to normal
most "collagen" injections are actually mostly elastin
100
what is fibronectin?
"connector"
helps us connect our cell to our collagen or from our cell to our elastin
101
what is the extracellular matrix made of?
fibrous proteins and vicious water made with carbohydrate structures
102
what are the 4 the purposes of the ECM?
1) it’s the bio-glue that holds all your cell together and gives you structure
2) ECM also influences the cells in the area around you – cells can’t just be put in a petri dish because they need the ECM – the ECM makes sure that the cells stay on the right path and continue to survive and don’t end their lives – when you put a cell in a petri dish the cell just dies
3) ECM needs to communicate with cells so that they continue to grow and thrive
4) ECM also causes differentiation - a cell becomes a liver cell because it's in the area near the ECM associated with the liver
103
what kind of cells make the ECM?
fibroblasts
104
what are the three fluid compartments?
1) intracellular
extracellular
2) interstitial fluid
3) plasma
105
what is the intracellular fluid compartment?
ICF intra = within
the water within the cells which the cytosol
the largest compartment! 67% of the fluid
106
what is the interstitial fluid?
extracellular fluid between the cells
second largest compartment! 26%
this is also the viscous water made by viscous by inner carbohydrate structures
107
what is plasma?
the water portion of the blood
the smallest fluid compartment! 7%
108
how many fluid compartment barriers are there? what are they?
there’s the largest amount of sodium in our blood, a little in the interstitial fluid and almost none in our cells – if there weren’t barriers there would be the same amount in each compartment
1) cellular plasma membrane
2) blood vessel walls
109
what is the plasma membrane?
separates fluid between the intracellular fluid compartment and the interstitial fluid
it's the outside membrane of our cells - keeps the sodium out and the potassium in
110
what are the blood vessel walls?
separates the interstitial fluid and the plasma
capillary walls are where you can see the exchange happening = endothelial cells!
111
what are iona?
compounds that have a charge
they are electrolytes!! because they have a charge/electrical component to them
112
what are the two types of ions?
cations: net positive
anions: net negative
113
do electrons travel alone?
electrons don’t like to travel around solo so a compound with an extra electron will give it up to become positive or pick another one up to become negative
114
what are free radicals?
they have a single electron in their outer orbit
electrons don't like to be alone so it will remove an electron from another compound
115
what kind of agents are free radicals?
oxidizing agents
don’t like to be alone so it removes an electron from another compound
lots of food has anti-oxidants which create less free radicals
116
do our levels of free radical vary within our body?
yes - we have a set point for our free radicals that we can adjust because sometimes we ingest them and we also produce them!
117
why do we produce free radicals?
production is intentional and is done via the immune system - effective against pathogens
when we are ill, our free radicals increase because we can use them to take an electron away from pathogens that are doing us harm so they can’t do their jobs as well and now the immune system can defeat them using other things
the bad things is that free radicals don’t care where they get the electron from (indiscriminate) will take from nearby – if no pathogen is around then they’ll start pulling electrons from your healthy cells
118
what's the problem with our immune system using free radicals?
we have to be able to neutralize free radicals via donors or antioxidants
119
what are examples of antioxidants?
vitamin A and vitamin D
they neutralize free radicals!
120
what are examples of free radicals?
superoxide anions (O2-)
nitrix oxide (NO)
hydroxyl radical OH-
121
what are covalent bonds?
they are the strongest bond!
caused by the sharing of a pair(s) of electrons rather than the moving of bonds
now always equally shared which causes partial charges so that electrons being shared can be closer or further away from an element in a covalent bond
122
what's an amphipathic compound?
half and half polar and nonpolar
123
what's are types noncovalent bond?
1) ionic bonds
2) hydrogen bonding
3) hydrophobic interactions
124
what are ionic bonds?
noncovalent bonds
electrical attraction of opposites
very strong bond but very weak in water and therefore in physiology so for us it's weak
125
what is a hydrogen bond?
noncovalent bond
an interaction with bound hydrogen - weak bond
126
what are hydrophobic interactions?
nocovalent bond
the non polar areas avoid water
weak, help creates the plasma membrane
