Exam 1 Chapters 1 -8, 22 Flashcards
Main systems that control Homeostasis
Local – right at the cell or neighbor cells
Reflex/long distance – widespread (systemic)
Response loop – from input signal – integrating center – output signal
Feedback loop – the response feeds back to influence the input portion of pathway
Intracellular vs. Extracellular
Intracellular (K+ higher)
Extracellular-Interstitial fluid and plasma
Positive Feedback vs. Negative Feedback
Positive – stimulus increases, output increases
Negative – stimulus increases, output decerases
Glycocalyx
Composed of glycoproteins and glycolipids
Marker for immune system
Sticks out of the Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid bilayer Glycocalyx Cholesterol Protein Channels Receptors
Different Bonds
Covalent – sharing of electrons between atoms
Ionic – transfer of electrons from one atom to another
Hydrogen – attraction through polarity (two water molecules)
Peptide Bond – amino group of one amino acid joins carboxyl group of another with loss of one water molecule.
Building blocks of proteins
All amino acids have a:
carboxyl group (COOH)
amino group (NH2)
hydrogen bound to a carbon
The fourth end is what determines the protein
Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds (The water shared between one carboxyl group and one amino group is removed (dehydration synthesis reaction)
Specificity
“Lock and Key”
Affinity
Attraction
Competition
Multiple ligands can bind with one protein receptor
Saturation
All protein receptors on cell have a ligand bound with it
H2O + CO2 <=> H2CO3 <=> HCO3 + H+
If H+ is added which way does the equation go?
Left to Right
H2O + CO2 <=> H2CO3 <=> HCO3 + H+
If C02 is added which way does the equation go?
Right to Left
What makes Ion Negative and Ion Positive
Negative ion has more electrons than
Positive ion has less electrons than protons
Solute vs. Solvent
Solute - Substance which gets dissolved
Solvent - Substance in which solute will dissolve in
Functions of Plasma Membrane
Regulates exchange with environment
Structural support
Protection
What makes up Cytoplasm
Cytosol
Inclusions
Cytoskeleton
Organelles
4 Types of Tissue in the body
EPITHELIAL
Covers exposed surfaces
Lines internal passageways
Produces glandular secretions
MUSCLE
Contracts to produce movements
Skeletal muscle, cardiac, smooth
NERVE
Conducts action potentials
Carries information
CONNECTIVE
Provides structural support
Fills internal spaces
Stores energy
Which tissue of the body is the most widespread?
Connective
Synthesis Reaction vs. Hydrolysis Reaction
Synthesis building up
Hydrolysis breaking down with water
Variables that affect Enzyme Reaction
Temperature pH inhibitors saturation concentration
suffix “-ase” will indicating something is an _____
enzyme
Deaminization vs. Transanimation
Deamination – removal of an amine group from an amino acid
Transamination – transfer of an amino group from one molecule to another
What happens at the end of the Electron Transport Chain?
ATP synthase transfers the kinetic energy of three H+ ions down the concentration gradient
into the high chemical energy phosphate bond of ATP
RNA Transcription and RNA Translation
Transcription – mRNA is formed from DNA
Translation – creation of protein in ribosomes from mRNA – codons and cytoplasm anticodons
What enzyme is involved in RNA Translation?
RNA Polymerase
If SOLUTION is more CONCENTRATED on side B than side A
Which way will the water flow?
Side B
through the semipermeable membrane to balance out concentration
Cell is placed in a SOLUTION, causing the cell to SWELL.
relative to the cell, the SOLUTION is considered _______
Hypotonic
Cell is placed in a SOLUTION, causing the cell to SHRINK.
relative to the cell, the SOLUTION is considered _______
Hypertonic
Cell is placed in a SOLUTION, the cell does NOT CHANGE in size.
relative to the cell, the SOLUTION is considered _______
Isotonic
Describe how glucose moves across a cell membrane
Facilitated diffusion brings glucose into cell through a GLUT transporters through membrane after insulin binds with the transporter
More activated receptors _______ the activity of the cell
increase
Less activated receptors _______ the activity of the cell
decrease
What is the function of Kinase?
Modifies other proteins by chemically adding phosphate groups to them
The effect of the target cell depends on the _______ (receptor or ligand ?)
Receptor
How does the Simple Endocrine Pathway work in a negative feedback?
A cell senses a change in environment and then secretes a hormone to produce a negative response
How does the Complex Endocrine Pathway work in a negative feedback?
one organ typically releases hormones that control the release of additional hormones from another part of the body to produce a negative response.
(ie: hypothalamus and pituitary gland)
Hormones produced by the Adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Aldosterone (kidneys)
Cortisol (many tissues)
Androgens (many tissues)
Pituitary Gland aka Hypophysis
is broken down into what three divisions?
Infundibulumm (stalk)
Neurohypophysis (Posterior)
Adenohypophysis (Anterior)
Neurohypophysis (Posterior) STORES which
ADH (vasopressin)
Oxytocin
Adenohypophysis (Anterior) Produces which hormones
PS!CFTL!
Prolactin (breast) Somatropin (GH) Corticotrtopin (ACTH) Follice-Stimulating Hormoned (Gonads) Thyrotrophin (TSH) Luteinizing Hormon (LH)
What is a Neurohormone
Hormone released by a neuron.
IE: ADH vasopressin released by hypothalamus to regulated the amount of water in your blood.
Tropic Hormone
Tropic hormones stimulate secretion of other hormones
What occurs during absorptive state?
Insulin is released
Glycogen is created in liver
Carbohydrates are used to create ATP for the body
Which produces the most kilocalories per gram?
Carbohydrates
Fat
Protein
Fat
Fat produce 9 kilcalories per gram
while Carbohydrates and Protein produce 4 kilocalories per gram
Gluconeogenesis
What is it and where does it take place?
Know what gluconeogenesis and where does it take place?
Gluconeogenesis is the creation of new glucose through noncarbohydrate precursors
Takes place in Liver
(Uses lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids)
Hormones released by Pancreas
- Endocrine:
o Insulin - many tissues
o Glucagon - liver, many tissues - Exocrine:
o Amylase
o Lipase
o Chymotrypsin
Exocrine vs. Endocrine
- Exocrine means secretion of hormones into ducts to the outside of body
- Endocrine means secretion of hormones into the blood inside the body
What is occurring in the body during the fasted state?
- Maintenance of blood sugar level
- Glucagon is released and breaks down glycogen into glucose
- Fats and proteins are used to create ATP for the body
o (Glucose is saved for the brain)
Interneuron
- Neurons that interconnect between other neurons in the CNS only
Efferent Neurones
Somatic Moroe and Autonomic Divisions (going away from CNS)
o Autonomic: Sympathetic (fight/flight) and Parasympathetic (rest/digest
Afferent Neurons
- Afferent are Sensory (going towards CNS)
Neuroglial Cells (PNS)
o Schwanns – forms myelin sheathes
o Satellite Cells – support cell bodies
Neuroglial Cells (CNS)
o Oligodendrocytes – forms myelin sheaths
o Astrocytes – forms blood brain barrier
- Supplies neurons with nutrient/removes waste
- Maintains homeostasis in ECF (water and K+)
o Microglia – eats, immune cell
o Ependymal – Plasma goes through ependymal
- Tweaks plasma to become CSF
- Cilia to move
What happens when potassium increases what happens to the resting membrane potential?
- Hyperkalemia brings resting membrane potential closer to action potential threshold
o Hyperkalemia causes more action potential firing
When potassium decreases, what happens to the resting membrane potential?
- Hypokalemia brings resting membrane potential further into hyperpolarization
o Hypokalemia causes fewer action potential firing
- What happens if a stimulus comes along to a neuron, and opens just voltage-gated K+ channels. What would happen to that target neuron?
- Falling Phase
o K+ exit repolarizes then hyperpolarizes cell
o Voltage-gate K+ channels close, less K+ leaks out of cell
o Cell returns to resting membrane
