Exam 1 Flashcards
Is a process whereby which the initially identical cells present during the earliest stages of development not only undergo anatomical alteration but also acquire specialized physiological properties
1 cell gives rise to many cell types
Cellular differentiation
What are the 3 distinct layers that comprise humans?
Ectoderm/Mesoderm/Endoderm
Is the innermost layer, cells that end up here become the liver, digestive tract and respiratory system (i.e. lungs)
Endoderm
Is the outermost layer, these cells become the brain, spinal cord, nose, ears, nervous/olfactory systems
Ectoderm
Cells of this layer become reproductive organs, muscles, excretory system (i.e. kidneys)
Mesoderm
What are the 4 distinct categories where cells in the body can be divided into?
Muscle/Epithelial/Nerve/Connective
These function as anchors and support, reproduce quickly
Bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fats, vascular
Connective tissue cells
These cells are found all over the body
Barriers all over the body’s surface, membranes, secretory cells of glands
Regulates transmissions; provides protection; reproduce quickly and can change
Epithelial cells
These cells have the ability to propagate a message from one point to another
Communicating cells electrically; are a-mitotic and do not reproduce
Nerve cells
Have the ability to create force or motion; are unique, a-mitotic and cannot reproduce
Can grow large or shrink; are mostly water and cannot turn into fats
Muscle cells
Physiological balance
Is a state of body equilibrium or stable internal environment of the body; does not require energy
Homeostasis
What type of mechanism does homeostasis use to regulate functions?
Passive transport
This is the most predominant process to maintain homeostasis
Diffusion
_____ is the random movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached
Diffusion
_____ temperature makes diffusion faster
Higher
_____ temperature makes diffusion slower
Lower
Larger molecules diffuse _____ than slower molecules
slower
_____ is the fluid outside the cell
Extracellular fluid
What are the 2 types of extracellular fluid?
intercellular (interstitial) & intracellular
_____ is fluid inside the cell
60% of body weight is water found the cells; 2/3 H2O
Intracellular fluid
_____ is fluid that is between the cells, 80%
The other 20% is _____, the fluid part of the blood
Intercellular fluid
Plasma
Homeostasis is regulated by 3 primary mechanisms in the human body (through ?)
diffusion
_____ is an anticipatory response; the example anticipates something before it happens (i.e. panic/anxiety; goosebumps, or getting cold before you go outside)
Feed forward
_____ where the initial condition that causes a response that is reversed; is the most common (i.e. after running/a work, sweating occurs)
Negative feedback
_____ where the initial condition that causes a response is enhanced or increased (i.e. childbirth)
Positive feedback
Diffusion of water is referred to as ?
Osmosis
Diffusion of water is referred to as ?
Osmosis
_____ is the way a cells reacts in a solution (fluid state) - a measure of the ability of a solution to cause a change in cell shape or tone by promoting osmotic flow of water
Tonicity
_____ is the dissolution or destruction of cells, exploding or rupturing of the cell
Lysis
What are the 3 types of solutions in regards to tonicity?
Hypertonic/Isotonic/Hypotonic
_____ is a solution in which a cell shrinks (i.e. crenation)
Hypertonic
_____ is a solution in which a cell swells/enlarges (i.e. hypertrophy)
Hypotonic
_____ is a solution in which there is an equal balance of solute/solvent; no net movement
Isotonic
Materials move from an area of _____ concentration to an area of _____ concentration until equilibrium is reached
greater, lesser
What are examples of diffusion factors?
size, polarity, movement, distance, temperature
_____ is a process by which substances are transported across cell membranes by means of protein carrier molecules; also called _____
Facilitated diffusion (or mediated transport), facilitated transport
What are the 3 forms of passive transport?
Specificity/Competition/Saturation
_____ takes energy to occur, energy donated by the cell
Active transport
Active transport;
Movement against concentration gradient/diffusion gradient
Movement from an area of _____ concentration to an area of _____ concentration
lower, higher
Active transport;
Movement against concentration gradient/diffusion gradient
Movement from an area of _____ concentration to an area of _____ concentration
lower, higher
_____ is a type of cellular process where movement happens from inside to outside
Exocytosis
_____ is a type of cellular process where movement happens from outside to inside
What are the 2 types of endocytosis?
Endocytosis
pinocytosis & phagocytosis
_____, cell drinking
Pinocytosis
_____, cell eating
Phagocytosis
____ is a type of transport that passes through a barrier; pulls in/pushes out
Epithelial transport
? - before a word means without
A-
An-
? - blue
Cyn-
Cyan-
? - to look
Scope-
? - suffix, to record
Gram-
? - pertaining to the heart
Cardio-
Cardia-
? - drug
Pharmic-
Pharmaco-
? - condition
Osis-
? - suffix, for the study of
Ology-
? - specialist, in the study of
Ologist-
? - stomach
Gastro-
? - inflammation
Itis-
? - cartilage
Chondro-
? - bone
Osteo-
? - body
Soma-
? - joint
Arthro-
? - beginning
Gen-
? - extremity
Acro-
? -cell
Cyto-
? - disease
Pathos-
? - increase in the angle of a joint
Flexion
? - decrease in the angle of a joint
Extension
? - movement away from the midline of the body
Abduction
? - movement towards the midline of the body
Adduction
? - movement external and internally
Rotational
? - toward the attached end of a limb or the origin of a structure, closest to the origin
Proximal
? - away from the attached end of a limb or the origin of a structure, farther from origin
Distal
? - front
Anterior
? - back
Posterior
? - closest to the midline
Medial
? - furthest from the midline
Lateral
? - posterior
Dorsal
? - anterior
Ventral
? - face up
Supine
? - face down
Prone
? - history
Hx
? - mechanism, how did it happen
Mx
? - symptoms
Sx
? - treatment
Rx, Tx
? - diagnosis, what it actually is, conformation
Dx
? - prognosis, forecast of what it is
Px
? - prognosis, forecast of what it is
Px
? - fracture or break (same thing)
Fx
? body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward
Anatomical position
? relating to the head, neck and trunk; 1 of the 2 major divisions of the body
Axial
? relating to the limbs; 1 of the 2 major divisions of the body
Appendicular
? divides the body into right and left parts; longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body or any of its parts into right and left portions
Sagittal plane
? specific plane that lies exactly in the midline, equal division of right and left half’s
Midsagittal (median) plane
? longitudinal (vertical) plane that divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior parts (front & back)
Frontal (coronal) plane
? a plane running from right to left, dividing the body or an organ into superior and inferior parts
Transverse (horizontal) plane
? a plane running from right to left, dividing the body or an organ into superior and inferior parts
Transverse (horizontal) plane
? a cut made diagonally between the horizontal and vertical plane of the body or an organ
Oblique section
_____ protects the nervous system, and is divided into 2 subdivisions
Dorsal body cavity
_____ is within the skull, encases the brain
Cranial cavity
_____ runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the spinal cord
Vertebral spinal cavity
_____ houses the internal organs (viscera) and is divided into 2 sibdivisions
Ventral body cavity
_____ is surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest
Thoracic cavity
_____ (right & left) each enveloping a lung
Pleural cavities
_____ contains the pericardial cavity - which encloses the heart and it also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
Mediastinum cavity
_____ contains the pericardial cavity - which encloses the heart and it also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
Mediastinum cavity
The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are separated by the _____?
Diaphragm
_____ lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs and the rectum
Pelvic cavity
_____ contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver and other organs
Abdominal cavity
_____ composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins that encloses cell contents; outer limiting cell membrane, thereby separating 2 of the body’s major fluid compartments - the intracellular fluid within the cell and the extracellular fluid outside the cell
Plasma membrane
_____ organelle responsible for cellular respiration
Mitochondria
_____ organelles that digest enzymes
Lysosomes
_____ organelle responsible for cellular reproduction; where genetic material is found
Nucleolus
_____ cytoplasmic organelle which manufactures proteins, found on the endoplasmic reticulum surface
Ribosomes
_____ double membrane that surrounds barrier of a cell nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Fluid Mosaic Model
- double bilayer of lipids with embedded, dispersed proteins
- bilayer consists of phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids
- glycolipids are lipids with bound carbohydrates
- phospholipids have hydrophobic and hydrophilic dipoles
- polar outside, nonpolar inside
Fluid Mosaic Model
- double bilayer of lipids with embedded, dispersed proteins
- bilayer consists of phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids
- glycolipids are lipids with bound carbohydrates
- phospholipids have hydrophobic and hydrophilic dipoles
- polar outside, nonpolar inside
_____ are firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer, have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, can interact with the nonpolar lipid tails buried in the membrane and with water inside and outside the cell
Integral proteins
_____ are loosely attached and are easily removed without disrupting the membrane. Include a network of filaments that help support the membrane from its cytoplasmic side. Some are enzymes and others are motor proteins involved in mechanical functions
Peripheral proteins
_____ is the fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface
Glycocalyx
_____ are anchoring junctions scattered like rivets along the sides of abutting cells and prevent separation
Desmosomes
_____ are integral proteins that form impermeable junctions that encircle the cell
Tight junctions
_____ or nexus; a communicating junction between adjacent cells, allows chemicals to pass
Gap junctions
_____ or nexus; a communicating junction between adjacent cells, allows chemicals to pass
Gap junctions
_____ is composed of about 30% DNA which is called genetic material
Chromatin
_____ are tightly coiled chromatin; protects chromatin
Chromosome
Cell cycle
- Interphase
- G1 growth
- S DNA synthesis
- G2 growth
- Mitotic phase
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Cytokinesis
Cell cycle
- Interphase
- G1 growth
- S DNA synthesis
- G2 growth
- Mitotic phase
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Cytokinesis
What are the 4 types of tissue?
Connective
Epithelial
Muscle
Nervous
?
- the major tissue(s) of glands
- widespread, covers all parts of the body; inside and out
- vascular or avascular?
- anchored to basement membranes
- reproduce rapidly
- tightly packed, protective barriers, secreting cells, absorb well
- certain types can act like neurons, can conduct impulses
Epithelial tissue
avascular
?
- the major tissue(s) of glands
- widespread, covers all parts of the body; inside and out
- vascular or avascular?
- anchored to basement membranes
- reproduce rapidly
- tightly packed, protective barriers, secreting cells, absorb well
- certain types can act like neurons, can conduct impulses
Epithelial tissue
avascular
Functions:
protection / absorption / filtration / excretion / secretion / sensory reception
Special characteristics:
- Cellularity - composed almost entirely of cells
- Polarity - apical surface and basal surface
- Specialized contacts - fit close together to form continuous sheets, bound together by tight junctions and desmosomes
- Supported by connective tissue - deep to the basal lamina is the reticular lamina
- Avascular but innervated - contains no blood vessels, but supplied by nerve fibers
- Regeneration - rapidly replaces lost cells by cell division
What are 3 types of epithelial cells?
squamous / cuboidal / columnar
____ have ducts, tubes that connect (i.e. parotid, sub mandibular, sublingual)
Exocrine glands
_____ are ductless glands; produce secretions (i.e. pituitary)
Endocrine glands
_____ are glands that produce and release fluids without the loss of any cytoplasm or cells, just release fluids
Merocrine glands
What are the 2 categories of merocrine glands?
serous enzymes / mucose
_____ produce and secrete fluids and with that fluid they lose cells
Holocrine glands
_____ will lose parts of cells, not whole cells
Apocrine glands
_____ will lose parts of cells, not whole cells
Apocrine glands
What are the 4 main classes of connective tissue?
Connective tissue proper
Cartilage
Bone tissue
Blood
What are the 4 main classes of connective tissue?
Connective tissue proper
Cartilage
Bone tissue
Blood
What are the 2 subclasses of connective tissue?
loose & dense (connective tissue)
- ?
- _____, most common type, large white and yellow fibers of protein
Resident cells
Fibroblast(s)
White fibers are called _____; is the major structural protein in the body; pulls things together
Collagen fibers
Yellow fibers are called _____;
Adipose tissue or fat, stores fat, connective tissue
_____, is a special kind of white blood cell, can also be wondering
Elastic fibers
Macrophage(s)
- ?
- _____, most common, produces 2 distinct chemicals;
_____, which is an anticoagulant
_____, which is a blood dialator
Wondering cells
Mast cell(s)
Heparin
Histamine
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
Hyaline (milk glass)
Elastic
Fibro
_____, plyable, found where strength and stretchability are needed
Elastic
_____; the most abundant type in the body; ends of bones; connections between ribs and sternum
Hyaline
_____; shock absorber, perfect structural intermediate; found in the menisci of the knee
Fibro
Cartilage is avascular/vascular?
avascular
?
- Is the most rigid form of connective tissue, protection, mobility and in forming blood cells
- Has a lot of collagen, gives it angular strength
- Mineral salts, calcium phosphate
Bone
?
- Is the most atypical connective tissue
Blood
?
- Is a type of connective tissue that does not reproduce; creates force and motion
Muscle
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
skeletal / cardiac / smooth
?
- Has striated, branched, uninucleated fibers
- Occurs in the walls of the heart
- Is involuntary
Cardiac muscle
?
- Has striated, tubular, multinucleated fibers
- Is usually attached to skeleton
- Is voluntary
Skeletal muscle
?
- Has spindle-shaped, nonstriated, uninucleated fibers
- Occurs in walls of internal organs
- Is involuntary
Smooth muscle
____ is 1 of the 4 main tissue types that does not reproduce
Nerve tissue
What are the 3 major layers of the skin?
epidermis / dermis / hypodermis
_____, or middle region
Dermis
_____, or subcutaneous layer; the deepest region; superficial fascia
Hypodermis
_____, the outermost layer; superficial region
Epidermis
Cells of the Epidermis
_____ function as touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings (are why paper cuts hurt; due to the activation of these)
_____ produces the brown pigment melanin
_____ are epidermal macrophages that help activate the immune system
_____ produces the fibrous protein keratin
Merkel cells
Melanocytes
Langerhans cells
Keratinocytes
?
- 3 to 5 layers of flattened cell, organelles deteriorating; cytoplasm full of lamellated granules (release lipids) and keratohyaline granules
Stratum granulosum (granular layer)
?
- deepest epidermal layer; 1 row of actively mitotic stem cells; some newly formed cells become part of the more superficial layers
Stratum basale (basal layer)
?
- most superficial layer; 20-30 layers of dead cells represented only by flat membranous sacs filled with keratin. Glycolipids in extracellular space
Stratum corneum (horny layer)
?
- several layers of keratinocytes unified by desmosomes. Cells contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments made of pre-keratin
Stratum spinosum (prickly layer)
Horny layer
- outermost layer of keratinized cell
- accounts for 3/4 of the epidermal thickness
Functions;
- Waterproofing
- Protection from abrasion and penetration
- Durable overcoat for the body, protecting deeper cells from hostile external environment (air) and from water loss
Horny layer
- outermost layer of keratinized cell
- accounts for 3/4 of the epidermal thickness
Functions;
- Waterproofing
- Protection from abrasion and penetration
- Durable overcoat for the body, protecting deeper cells from hostile external environment (air) and from water loss
What are the 2 layers of the dermis?
papillary layer / reticular layer
_____ is the deeper layer
reticular layer
_____ is the outer layer
papillary layer
_____ layer
- accounts for _____ % thickness of the skin
- contains larger blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerve fibers
- collagen fibers in this layer add strength and resiliency to the skin
- elastin fibers provide strength-recoil properties; contains collagen and elastic fibers
Reticular
80 (%)
_____ layer
- accounts for _____ % thickness of the skin
- contains larger blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerve fibers
- collagen fibers in this layer add strength and resiliency to the skin
- elastin fibers provide strength-recoil properties; contains collagen and elastic fibers
Reticular
80 (%)
_____ (subcutaneous) layer
- subcutaneous layer deep to the skin
- composed of adipose tissue
- insulates and stores energy
Hypodermis
Skin Color
What 3 pigments contribute to skin color?
melanin / carotene / hemoglobin
_____ is a yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products like carrots. Accumulates in the stratum corneum and in fatty tissue of the hypodermis
Carotene
_____; the pinkish hue of fair skin reflects the crimson color of the oxygenated pigment _____ in the red blood cells circulating through the dermal capillaries
Hemoglobin
_____; yellow to tan to reddish-brown to black pigments; responsible for dark skin color
Freckles and pigmented nevi (moles) are local accumulations of _____?
Melanin
Sweat Glands
- Different types prevent overheating of the body; secreting cerumen and milk
What are the 2 types of sweat glands?
eccrine & apocrine
Sweat Glands
- Different types prevent overheating of the body; secreting cerumen and milk
What are the 2 types of sweat glands?
eccrine & apocrine
_____ sweat glands are found in the axillary and anogenital areas
apocrine
_____ sweat glands are found in the palms, soles of the feet and the forehead
eccrine
_____ are specialized sweat glands; secrete milk
mammary glands
_____ are modified apocrine glands found in the lining of the external ear canal. Secretion mixes with sebum produced by nearby sebaceous glands to form a sticky bitter substance called cerumen, or earwax
Sebaceous glands
Sebaceous glands
- simple, alveolar glands found all over the body
- soften skin when stimulated by hormones
- secrete an oily substance called ?
sebum
Hair
- filamentous strands of dead keratinized cells produced by hair follicles
- contains hard keratin which is tougher and more durable than soft keratin of the skin
- made up of shafts projecting from the skin and the root embedded in the skin
- consists of a core called the ?, a cortex and an outermost cuticle
- pigment by ? at the base of the hair
medulla
melanocytes
Types of Hair
_____ - pale, fine body hair
_____ - coarser, longer hair; eyebrows, scalp, pubic, body, arms, legs, chest, face
Vellus
Terminal
