Exam 1 Flashcards
The Different principles of biology
Anatomy Cellular Anatomy Physiology Genetics Developmental biology
Anatomy
the study of different organs and structures
cellular anatomy
the study of cell organelles and structures
genetics
the study of how genes and evolution affect biological processes
developmental biology
the study of how an organism and its tissues are created during development
Genetic manipulation
selective breeding, transgenic manipulation (animals only)
Neuropharmacology
giving agonists or antagonists to brain chemicals (animals and humans)
Electrical stimulation
increases the activity of a brain region stimulating it electrically (animals and humans)
Trauma studies
damage to a brain region due to accidental injury (humans)
The different types of biopsychological manipulations
Genetic manipulations
neuropharmacology
electrical stimulation
trauma studies
Peripheral nervous system
components of the nervous system outside the skull spine
Main components of the nervous system
Nerves and ganglia
Nerves
enclosed, cable- like bundles that transmit electrical impulses to and from body structures and the brain
Ganglia
clusters of nerve cells bodies associated with nerves
2 main branches of the peripheral nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
nerves carrying sensory information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS
Cranial nerves
carry info t o and from the brain and the head, neck and trunk
Spinal nerves
carry info to and from the CNS
Autonomic nervous system
special nerves that regulate activity of the internal organs and other involuntary activites
Parasympathetic nervous system
In autonomic nervous system
regulates day to day functions like digestion
Sympathetic nervous system
in autonomic nervous system
regulates “fight or flight” response to threats and stressors
Central Nervous system
components of the nervous system located in the skull and spine (Brain and spinal cord)
spinal cord
functions primarily in transmission of signals to and from the brain and the rest of the body
Dorsal roots
bring sensory info the the CNS from the body AFFERENT
ventral roots
take motor commands from CNS to muscles EFFERENT
Major landmarks of the brain
- two hemispheres are separated by the LONGITUDINAL FISSURE
- Two hemispheres are connected by the CORPUS CALLOSUM which allows communication between them
The Cells of the Brain are Organized into Different Structures
cortex
nuclei
Cortex
layers of nerve cells or neurons on the outer part of the brain
nuclei
clusters of nerve cells or neurons with the brain
Folds of the Cortex
Gyri (singular gyrus)
Sulci (singular sulcus)
Gyri
bulges or ridges on the brain’s surface
Sulci
grooves or indentations in the brain’s surface
The Hemispheres are Both are Both
Symmetrical
Asmmetrcial
Contralateral
Symmetrical
structures or functions found in both hemispheres of the brain (sensory areas and motor areas)
asymmetrical
structures or functions found in one hemisphere only language and spatial navitageion areas are usually located in opposite hemispheres
contralateral
information is sent and recived to and from the opposite side of the body
Hindbrain
regulates function that are basic and critical to life
midbrain
movement, reward, arousal
auditory and visual reflexes
Forebrain
many of the functions of the forebrain are what make us uniuqely human conscious thought memory and emotion
Meninges
membranes surrounding and protecting and protecting the brain
What ar the layers of the meninges
Dura mater (Tough outer layer) Arachnoid membrane (spiderweb- like middle layer) Pia mater (adheres to the brain and spinal cord)
Disease associated with Meninges
Meningitis - inflammation of the protective membranes surrounding the brain
Symptoms of meningitis
headache, neck stiffness, fever
Ventricles
large fluid filled chambers in the brain
Hydrocephalus
blockage of the drainage of CSF through the brain, causing the ventricles to swell
Symptoms of hydrocephalus
obvious and excessive head size and “sundowning”
Cerebral vasuclature
blood vessels supplying brain with oxygen and nutrients
stroke
decrease in blood supply providing oxygen to a part of the brain that results of death of neurons downstream of the blockage
cell
the smallest unit of life
What does a cell consist of ?
cell membrane that surrounds and separates the queous interior called the cytoplasms from the extracellular fluid surrounding the cells
2 main types of cells
neurons and glial cells
neurons
main functional cells of the nervous system, electrically active cells which communicate with one another
glial cells
the “support staff” of the nervous system, provide support, protection and other things
What are the structures found on a typical neurons
dendrites
cell body or soma
axon
Dendrites
branching processes coming off cell body
cell body or soma
where nucleus and most organelles are found
axon
sends information on to the next neurons
3 functional kinds of neurons
motor neurons
sensory neurons
interneurons
motor neurons
neurons that send signals to the muscles and other body structures from the CNS
sensory neurons
neurons receiving sensory information and relaying it to the CNS
interneurons
neurons that link between two other neurons
3 structural kinds of neruons
Unipolar
bipolar
multipolar
unipolar
both the axon and main dendrite are part of the same process
bipolar
the axon and the dendrite come off opposite sides of the cell body
multipolar
neurons with multiple dendrites
Most neurons in the brain are
multipolar
cell proliferation
the process by which one cell grows and replicates
Cell differentiation
the process by which neurons tak eon their complex adult form by turning on specific genes
the four main type of glial cells
astrocytes
oligodendrocytes
microglia
ependymal cells
astrocytes
stare shaped cells that rpovide structural and nurtitive support to neurons
oligodendrocytes and schwann cells
insulate neuronal axons and improve electrical transmission along them
microglia
immune like cells in the CNS that remove damaged neurons
ependymal cells
produce cerebrospinal fluid
where are oligodendrocytes are found
in the central nervous system
Where are schwann cells found
in the peripheral nervous system
Multiple sclerosis
destruction of the myelin sheath by immune cells, destruction of myelin results in axonal conduction. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, paralysis, vision problems, cognitive defect
microglia
phagocytose or eat invading microorganisms such as bacteria and damaged or dead neurons. Go from branching (non-activated) to ameboid to phagocytic macrophage. If chronically activated can start to malfucntion and produce and secrete substances that can cause chronic pain and neuronal death
Ependymal cells and Hydrocephalus
produce cerebrospinal fluid in the choroid plexus. Can’t turn of CSF production so if CSF drainage is blocked can result in
Tumor
a large mass of abnormally proliferating cells
Primary tumors
Brain tumors are usually glial because neurons are post- mitotic
Secondary tumors
tumor cells can also form elsewhere in the body and invade the brain
Ion
an atom or molecule in which total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons
An Ion can be positively and negatively charged when
when the dnumber of positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons is equal an atom is not charged and is not an ion
pumps
pumps are special proteins found in the cell membrane. They move ions across membranes against their concentration gradient, which requires energy. Energy for this is provided by the breakdown of hdrolysis of ATP to ADP and PI
Ion channels
ion channels are special proteins found in the cell membrane, Ions move down their concentration gradient and no energy is required
The Non gated K+ and Na+ Ion channels
known as non gated ion channels because they are always open . They allow K+ to move out of the cell down the concentration gradient .
At rest there are many more ____channels open than ___
K+, NA+
resting membrane potential
the charge or voltage difference at rest across the plasma membrane
Na+/K+ pump
moves 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in net loss of positive charge inside neuron
non-gated K+ channel
at rest more non gated open K+ channels than Na channels so more Na+ charge flows out of a neuron than in
Voltage gated Ion Channels
opened by changes in voltage or charge inside the cell, allow ions to move down their concentration gradient, because ion s move down their concentration gradient, no energy is required are specific for specific ions
States of voltage gated Ions
Closed
Open or activated
inactivated
open or activated
channel and inactivating segment are both open and lots can move through
inactivated
channel is opened is or closed but inactivating segment has swung shut and no Na+ can move through
K+ voltage gated Ion channel
states- closed and open / activated
Key points - it opens in response to large increases in positive charge inside the cell,i
depolarization
when positive ions flow into the cell or negative ions flow out of the cell and it becomes les negative inside compared to outside the cell
hyperpolarization
when positive ions flow out of the cell or negative ions flow into the cell and it becomes more negative inside compared to outside the cell
Action potential step one
At rest, the Na+/K+ pump and the resting K+ channel
produce a net negative charge inside the cell compared to outside
action potential step two
depolarization opens voltage gated Na+ channels
Action potential step 3
After a delay, voltage-gated K+ channels open. At the same time, the voltage gated Na+ channels close and inactivate; membrane repolarizes
Action potential step 4
inactivation of the Na+ channels and opening in voltage-gated K+ channels results in “overshoot”of resting membrane potential, causing hyperpolarization
Action potential step 5
closed Na+ channels de-inactivate, voltage-gated K+ channel closes, Na+/K+ pumps return Na+ and K+ gradients to normal, membrane potential returns to normal
action potential
Influx of Na+ from AP flows into adjacent membrane area a. This new patch of membrane depolarizes, forms action potential, which depolarizes the next patch of membrane, opening its Na+ channels, and so forth. Previous patch can’t reform action potential because it is refractory due to closing and inactivation of Na+ channels during hyperpolarization. This means action potential moves only in one direction, down axon toward the synapse
saltatory conduction
Myelin sheath surrounds axon except bare patches called Nodes of Ranvier. Action potential “jumps” from node to node because myelin insulates the axon, allowing less ion flow out across membrane. This “jumping” speeds the rate of action potential propagation down the axon
The steps involved in neurotransmitter release and know the trigger for vesicle fusion
1.Action potential travels down to axon terminal
2.Action potential opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels
3.Opening of Ca2+ channels allows Ca2+ to flow into the cell down its conc. gradient
4. Ca2+ influx causes fusion of neurotransmitter vesicles with the membrane or synthesis of gas neurotransmitters
Fusion of vesicles dumps neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
the main classes of neurotransmitters
dopaminergic
nodregenic
sertongeric
cholingeric `
dopminergic
uses dopamine with the brain– regulated reward and movement
noradernergic
uses norepinephrine within the brain–regulates arousal and attention
sertonergic
uses serotonin within the brain– regulates mood and compulsions
chilnergic
uses acetylchonin within the brain – regulates arousal and attention
small molecule
amino acids or synthesized from them or other metabolites
peptide
long chains of amino acids linked together to form a peptide or protein endorphins
transmitter gases
gasses synthesized from atoms
Ionotropic
binding of NT directly opens an ion channel in the receptor and allows ions to flow into the cell
metabotropic
binding of NT does not directly open an ion channel in the receptor but instead indirectly opens an ion channel by activating other intracellular proteins
