Exam 1 Flashcards
Metazoan
multicellular eukaryote obligate heterotroph
Heterotroph
cannot obtain its own food, must get food from environment
Plant
multicellular eukaryotes that are photosynthetic autotrophs
Photosynthetic autotroph
makes its own food source via photosynthesis
Eukaryote cell
a unit of cytoplasm, bounded by a
plasma membrane, that is capable of replication with modification
Diploid
2N, 2 copies of genetic code inside
Zygote
a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes
Cytoplasm
water, ions, small organic molecules,
macromolecules
Plasma membrane
Phospholipid Bilayer/Protein complex
Transcription
DNA to RNA
Translation
a Ribosome
reads a mRNA in order to
assemble a polypeptide
Ribosome
(Protein/RNA)
macromolecular complex
Ions
Atom/atoms with a molecular charge (Na+, K+, Ca++)
Small organic molecules
sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, amino acids, ATP, nucleotides
ATP
Energy shuttle
Protein
covalent peptide bond
Carbohydrates
glycosidic bond
Complex lipids
glucose plus lipids
Nucleic acids
phosphodiester and hydrogen bonds
Lipophilic
substances cross the
Phospholipid Bilayer
(O2 and CO2)
Hydrophilic
low
molecular weight
substances cross the
membrane through
channels (Sugars,
Amino Acids, Ions)
Exocytosis
Macromolecules (usually polypeptides) exit the cell via the process of exocytosis via a secretory vesicle - made of plasma membrane
Endocytosis
Macromolecules, such as proteins and carbohydrates) enter a
cells via the process of endocytosis via a endocytic vesicle
Lysosome
site for intracellular digestion; site for breaking down
macromolecules such as:
carbohydrates to sugars
proteins to amino acids
complex lipids to fatty acids
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA
ribonucleic acid
Endoplasmic Reticulum
site for
protein synthesis (translation)
Golgi
a cell organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell
Secretory vesicle
These secretory vesicles, which are larger than other transport vesicles, store their contents until specific signals direct their fusion with the plasma membrane
Mitochondrion
site of Aerobic Metabolism of sugars, amino acids,
and fatty acids to make most of the ATP the cell needs to survive
Aerobic metabolism
A chemical process in which oxygen is used to make energy from carbohydrates (sugars)
Chloroplast
site of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
to convert light energy into chemical energy, and to
combine Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen to make C6H12O6 - Glucose
Second Law of Thermodynamics
you have to stay ahead of your body trying to kill you
Genome
the total number of chromosomes in the
nucleus of a non-gamete cell
Chromosome
a DNA/protein complex
Gene
information
coding region on a
chromosome
Homologous chromosomes
1 maternal, 1 paternal, codes for the same gene
Meiosis
formation of gametes
Mitosis
regular division of cells
Oogenesis
meiosis to make an egg
Spermatogenesis
meiosis to make sperm
Flagellated Choanocyte
1 of 2 cell types in a sponge, very outer later of gastric cavity to move water in and out and absorb nutrients
Mesohyl (integument of a sponge)
outer layer of sponge cells. Specialized Mesohyl Cells produce either a Egg cell (n) or a Sperm cell (n)
Asymmetry
no symmetry or defined body plan
Medusa
jellyfish form
Radial Symmetry
you could cut it any way and it would be symmetrical
Bilateral Symmetry
only one cut will be symmetrical
Ectoderm
precursor cell that gives rise to the Nervous System,
lining of the Mouth,
Anterior Pituitary
Gland
Endoderm
precursor cell that gives rise to Cells that line the
Stomach, Liver
and Intestines
Mesoderm
precursor cells that give rise to Bone, Cartilage, Blood cells,
Ovary, Testes, cells that line the
Coelom
Blastula
hollow ball of cells right after zygote formed
Gastrula
after blastula, has all three cell types
Archenteron
the primitive digestive tube or the primitive gut, is the internal cavity of the primitive gastrointestinal tract that forms during gastrulation in a developing animal embryo. It develops into the endoderm and mesoderm of the animal
Protostome
mouth forms before anus
Deuterostome
anus forms before mouth
Integument
outer layer of a metazoan (scales on fish)
Coelom
fluid-filled body cavity present between the alimentary canal and the body wall.” The true coelom has a mesodermal origin. It is lined by mesoderm
Hydrostatic Skeleton
use a cavity filled with water; the water is incompressible, so the organism can use it to apply force or change shape.
Endoskeleton
internal skeleton of bone or cartilage
Exoskeleton
skeleton on exterior of body
Muscle
contractile tissue grouped into coordinated systems for greater efficiency. The three types of muscles are striated (or skeletal), cardiac, and smooth (or nonstriated)
Glucose
universal organic fuel for Aerobic Metabolism to make
ATP to allow cells to stay ahead of the 2nd law
Animal cell Plant cell
Aorta
The Aorta delivers
oxygenated blood to the Body
Heart
muscular pump
Artery
a vessel that caries
blood away from the heart
Vein
a vessel that caries
blood to the heart
Closed circulatory system
In a closed circulatory system blood is always
contained within vessels
Blood is pumped around the body through the
action of a heart.
oxygenated
hemoglobin is carrying the four oxygen molecules
de-oxygenated
hemoglobin not carrying oxygen
endothelial cell
cells that line the inside of an artery
arteriole
a branch of an artery
capillary
a branch of an
arteriole that is one cell layer thick. merges to form venules or arterioles.
venule
merge to form a vein
open circulatory system
An open circulatory system there is a mixing of the
blood and extracellular fluid to make up the
hemolymph.
In an open circulatory system, the hemolymph is
not enclosed in blood vessels.
Hemolymph is pumped into a cavity called the
hemocoel via the action of a “heart.”
hemocoel
The body cavity, filled with hemolymph
ostia of the insect heart
Ostia are small, slit-like, paired openings in the dorsal vessel that allow hemolymph to enter or leave the vessel.
neurogenic heart
Contraction of the
Heart Muscle is
controlled by the
Nervous System
hemolymph
Hemolymph, or haemolymph, is a fluid, analogous to the blood in vertebrates, that circulates in the interior of the arthropod body, remaining in direct contact with the animal’s tissues.
atrium
The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs. The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle.
ventricle
The ventricles are the two lower chambers of the heart, one on the right and one on the left. The ventricles receive blood from the heart’s upper chambers (atria) and pump it to the rest of the body. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body.
vertebrate
has a backbone
agnatha
class of jawless fish
Cartilaginous Fishes
sharks and rays
bony fishes
skeletons made of bone
tetrapods
four-limbed vertebrates
superior vena cava
Deoxygenated blood is carried to
the Right Atrium by the Superior
Vena Cava and the Inferior Vena
Cava - below
inferior vena cava
Deoxygenated blood is carried to
the Right Atrium by the Superior
Vena Cava and the Inferior Vena
Cava - below
tricuspid valve
one-way valve from right atrium to right ventricle
pulmonary valve
valve from right ventricle to pulmonary artery
pulmonary vein
Oxygenated blood is carried from
the Lungs to the Left Atrium by
the Pulmonary Veins
mitral valve
left atrium to left ventricle, one-way
aortic valve
left ventricle to aorta
coronary arteries
Coronary Arteries branch off
of the Aorta and deliver
oxygenated blood to the
cardiac muscle
coronary artery disease
Blockages of the Coronary
Arteries
myocardial infarction
complete blockage of the coronary arteries (heart attack). higher up is worse
cardiac muscle
single nucleus, electrically excitable cells
gap junction
Gap junctions (GJs) allow direct communication between cells
sinus node
controls cardiac muscle contractions, located in right atria
atrioventricular node
where the signal from the sinus node is renewed, in-between ventricle walls
aneurysm
stretching of the wall of a blood vessel which can
be caused by a wound to the vessel, or excess pressure within the
vessel
If not corrected, the aneurysm will burst
stroke
if an aneurysm ruptures in the brain
pericardial sac
The heart is positioned
inside the Pericardial
Sac. The sac is full of
Pericardial Fluid (H20), prevents friction
plasma
same as extra-cellular fluid: water, ions, proteins, waste, etc
umbilical vein
The Umbilical Vein
merges with the
Inferior Vena Cava
foreman ovale
The IVC enters the
Right Atrium: most of
the blood passes
through the Foreman
Ovale into the Left
Atrium. Some blood
enters the Right
Ventricle - closes at birth
ductus arteriosus
When the Right
Ventricle contracts, some
blood goes to the lung
tissue, but most blood
enters the Ductus
Arteriosus - closes at birth
umbilical artery
De-oxygenated blood,
is carried by Umbilical
Arteries to the
capillary bed interface
between the fetus and
the Mother
bicarbonate ion
CO2 interacts with H2O to make Bicarbonate Ion. A build up of Bicarbonate Ion will raise the pH in
the Extracellular Fluid and Plasma above 7.8
alkalosis
when the ph in the extracellular fluid goes above 7.8
hemoglobin
a protein that carries oxygen in the blood
globin
a peptide that contains the heme complex. 4 globin peptides/human hemoglobin
heme
the complex that carries oxygen. the iron in the middle of the complex attracts the oxygen. 1/globin
mantle cavity
to enclose and protect the internal organs. The mantle cavity is located inside the mantle, in the mollusk body. It holds water and acts as a respiratory organ.
gills
analogous to lungs, a way to perform gas exchange with increased surface area
hemocyanin
Hemocyanin, a copper-containing protein chemically unlike hemoglobin, is found in some crustaceans. Hemocyanin is blue in colour when oxygenated and colourless when oxygen is removed
convergent evolution
when two analogous things evolve completely separate
air sac
An Air Sac has a single layer of very
thin Lung Cells. contains multiple alveoli.
red blood cells
made in bone marrow. pre-cursor cells take 7 days. no nucleus, loaded with hemoglobin. last 120 days, destroyed in spleen/nucleus
ray-finned fishes
gills, air sac, swim bladder
lobe-finned fishes
gills, lungs, integument
swim bladder
connected to gas gland, can
expand and contract based
on the activity of the Gas
Gland, used for buoyancy
gas gland
makes gases to put in swim bladder
spiracles
is an opening
to a Trachea, and each
Trachea branches several
times into small tubes call
Tracheoles (insects)
trachea
tube that
originates in the mouth and
branches to enter each lung
tracheole
Tracheoles pass in close
proximity to every cell in the
insect.
cutaneous respiration (amphibians)
gas exchange across the Integument
membranous lungs (amphibians)
lungs in frogs.
nasal passages
Air can enter the Trachea
either via the Nasal Passages
or the Mouth
ribs
The Ribs create the space designated as the Chest Cavity
intercostal muscles
muscles expand and contract the ribs to allow breathing. underneath the ribs
pleural cavity
lined by the Pleural membrane. The Pleural Cavity is filled with fluid. The Lungs are surround by the Pleural Cavity. The Pleural Cavity acts as a cushion to protect the Lung tissue
bronchi
trachea branches into two bronchi, one for each lung
bronchiole
Each Bronchus will branch
into smaller air tubes call
Bronchioles
alveolar duct
duct to the alveoli
alveoli
end of each air tube
diaphragm
a muscle beneath the lungs. inhale=diaphragm contracting downwards
air sac
An Air Sac has a single layer of very
thin Lung Cells
lung cell (in an air sac)
each one is next to a capillary. lined with epithelial cells for gas exchange.
pulmonary artery
branches into the Capillaries that go to each Air Sac
pulmonary vein
Oxygenated blood exits the Lungs via
the Pulmonary Vein, which carries it to the left atrium.
bone marrow
where stem cells are made and activated
anemia
lack of iron needed to make functional hemoglobin
iron deficiency
when you don’t consume enough iron to make functional hemoglobin
sickle cell anemia
The Sickle-Cell Hemoglobin will
crystalize in RBCs when exposed
to dehydration in the vascular
system, or low O2 in the
environment (for example at
altitude).
The Sickle Cell RBCs can clog
Capillaries and disrupt blood flow
Treatment: transfusion of healthy
RBCs from a donor
blood types in humans
O (universal donor), O+, B-, B+, A-, A+, AB-, AB+ (universal recipient)
congestive heart failure
A weakening of the muscles
associated with the Right Ventricle
caused by Coronary Artery Disease
pleural effusion
a build-up of fluid in the pleural cavity
central nervous system
controls the rate of breathing
neuron
CNS cell
Respiratory Rhythmicity Center
In the Brain Stem (Medulla
Oblongata) the Respiratory
Rhythmicity Center (box) controls
both involuntary and voluntary
breathing through different centers.
involuntary control of breathing
The Involuntary Respiratory Centers
control the contraction of the
Intercostal Muscles, and the
Diaphragm every second that you are
alive
voluntary control of breathing
The Voluntary control of breathing
gives you the option to momentarily
increase you breathing rate
narcotic pain reliever
depresses the activity of the Brainstem Rhythmicity Center leading to death
opiates
Can depress the activity of the Brainstem Rhythmicity Center leading to death
sedatives
Can depress the activity of the Brainstem Rhythmicity Center leading to death
opiate receptors
on our neurons, sense opiates
enkephalin
same shape as an opiate molecule
glycosidic bond
bonds that link carbohydrates/glucose
Glycosidases
break glycosidic bonds
amino acids
20 total, 8 essential
peptide bond
bonds proteins together
protease
breaks apart a protein
essential amino acid
8 of them, our bodies cannot make them and we must obtain them from the environment
complex lipid
chain of lipids
fatty acid
make up phospholipids which make up complex lipids
glycerol
combines with fatty acids to form triglycerides
ester bond
links fatty acids to glycerol
phospholipids
polymers of fatty acids linked by ester bonds to glycerol
lipases
breaks ester bonds
essential fatty acids
your cells cannot make these
nucleic acids
polymers of either deoxyribose nucleotides or oxyribose nucleotides linked via phosphodiester bonds
deoxyribose nucleotides
no oxygen on __ carbon
oxyribose nucleotides
oxygen on __ carbon
phosphodiester bonds
link nucleic acids
Phosphodiesterases
break phosphodiester bonds to release nucleotides
vitamins
organic complexes that your cells cannot make
minerals
ions of elements that your cells cannot make
intracellular digestion
macromolecules
needed as sources for amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, and
nucleotides can be obtained from the extracellular fluid, performed in the lysosome
hydrolytic enzymes
breaks down macromolecules to AAs, glucose, FAs, nucleotides
zooplankton phytoplankton
another source of nucleic acids and lipids, similar to macromolecules
extracellular digestion
Extracellular Digestion implies “outside” the body, GI tract being technically outside the body
nematocysts
little stingers, injects a dose of neurotoxin into fish
neurotoxin
paralyzes or kills jelly prey
filter feeder
whale shark
substrate feeder
eats dirt, dead organisms and small organisms provide nutrition
fluid feeder
mosquito
bulk feeder
human
GI Tract
the tract of your GI system
mouth
where you take in food
anus
where waste is expelled
mechanical force
physical movement of gi tract to break down food
chemical processes
hydrochloric acid and others produced from various organs
enzyme-mediated reactions
sped up by enzymes
digestive enzymes
specific catalysts for the GI tract
absorption
getting glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and nucleotides to cells
oral cavity
the mouth
salivary glands
exocrine glands: releases secretory
products into a duct network that leads
out of the body. acinus formed at end of duct. either mucous or amylase produced-food dependent
esophagus
tubule linking mouth to site for mechanical digestion
stomach
a site for mechanical digestion
liver
produces bile salts, transferred via common bile duct
gallbladder
a bag to store bile salts
pancreas
Secretory Cells in an Acinus release
Hydrolytic Enzymes such as Amylases,
Proteases (Trypsin and Chymotrypsin),
Nucleases, and Lipases
Duct Cells release H2O and Bicarbonate Ion
small intestine
jejunum and ileum. good for absorption
large intestine
helps body retain water, terrestrial beings
saliva
mostly mucus.
Saliva also contains the enzyme Amylase.
Amylase starts breaking apart
carbohydrates
Saliva provides the water environment to
start chemical digestion of food particles,
and it makes it possible for you to swallow
mucus
Mucus is a mixture of H20, Na+ & Cl- ions,
glycoproteins, neural buffering agents (pH =
7), and antibacterial agents
antibacterial agents
?
amylase
breaks down carbohydrates in the stomach and then denatures in the stomach acid
sublingual (salivary gland)
under the tongue
submandibular (salivary gland)
near the lower jaw
parotid (salivary gland)
near the hinge between the upper and lower jaw
exocrine gland
releases secretory products into a duct network that leads out of the body
acinus of a salivary gland
little bulb at end of gland where either mucus or amylase is released. serous or mucousal cells
gastroesophageal junction
Food particles enter the Stomach at the
Gastroesophageal junction
epiglottis
When you eat, the Epiglottis covers the opening to the Trachea
When you breath or talk the Epiglottis moves to expose the opening of the Trachea
rugae
ridges in the walls of the stomach, rubs against food particles to break them down
gastric juice
lowers the ph to 2, proteins denature, macromolecules break down
chyme
solution in the lumen of the stomach
pepsin
breaks proteins into polypeptide fragments
protease
group of proteolytic enzymes that hydrolyze proteins
gastric pit
source of Gastric Acid and Pepsin. has many cell types
parietal cell of gastric pit
make and release hydrochloric acid
hydrochloric acid
The hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice breaks down the food and the digestive enzymes split up the proteins
chief cell of gastric pit
make and secrete pepsin
gastric ulcer
cells in the lining of the stomach break down, The concern is that bacteria will pass through the breech in the Stomach wall and get into your blood stream
pyloric sphincter
a value that separates the Stomach from the Small Intestine As Chyme passes through the Pyloric Sphincter into the Small Intestine, secretory cells release Bicarbonate Ion to neutralize the pH of the Chyme
bile salts
act as a detergent on
complex lipids to breakup lipid complexes
and to expose the Lipids to Lipases. released into the duodenum lumen
liver cell
- Store Glucose as the carbohydrate Glycogen,
and release Glucose into the vascular system
when needed - Store Fatty Acids as Triglycerides in Lipid
droplets, and release Triglycerides into the
vascular system when needed - De-toxify foreign substances picked up during
digestion (delivered by Hepatic Portal Vein) - Make Bile Salts from the break down of RBCs,
and release into Bile ducts that go to the
Gallbladder - Make Cholesterol, and release into the vascular
system - Make Insulin-like Growth Factor (needed for
long bone growth and muscle maintenance),
and release into the vascular system - Make the precursor for Angiotensin II (blood
pressure regulation) and release into the
vascular system
lipase
breaks down individual phospholipids to individual fatty acids
gallbladder disease
when bile salts crystalize due to dehydration and form gallstones
gallstone
crystalized bile salts
exocrine pancreas
Secretory Cells in an Acinus release
Hydrolytic Enzymes such as Amylases,
Proteases (Trypsin and Chymotrypsin),
Nucleases, and Lipases
Duct Cells release H2O and Bicarbonate Ion
acinus of the exocrine pancreas
secretory and duct cells
trypsin
a protease
chymotrypsin
a protease
nucleases
break down nucleic acids into individual nucleotides
