Ethics questions -difficult ones Flashcards
Which of the following best describes ethical requirements regarding debriefing research participants about the nature and results of a research study?
A. Participants must always be debriefed “as early as is feasible” after participation in a research study.
B. Participants should ordinarily be debriefed as soon as possible but, in some cases, debriefing may not be necessary.
C. Participants must be debriefed only when there’s a chance they were psychologically or physically harmed by the research.
D. Participants must be debriefed as soon as possible only when they were deceived about important aspects of the study.
Correct answer
B. Participants should ordinarily be debriefed as soon as possible but, in some cases, debriefing may not be necessary.
Explanation
Debriefing is addressed in Standard 8.08 of the APA Ethics Code and Standards II.47 and III.25 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. Standard 8.08(a) requires psychologists to promptly debrief research participants “about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research.” However, Standard 8.08(b) states that “if scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.”
With regard to ethical requirements, which of the following is true about withholding a therapy client’s record for nonpayment of fees?
A. Withholding a client’s record for nonpayment of fees is always unethical when it’s needed for the client’s treatment.
B. Withholding a client’s record for nonpayment of fees is always unethical when it’s needed for the client’s emergency treatment.
C. Withholding a client’s record for nonpayment of fees is ethical only when the client has not responded to multiple requests for payment.
D. Withholding a client’s record for nonpayment of fees is ethical only when the client had been informed of this practice during the informed consent process.
Answer B is correct. This answer is most consistent with Standard 6.03 of the APA’s Ethics Code. It states that “psychologists may not withhold records under their control that are requested and needed for a client’s/patient’s emergency treatment solely because payment has not been received.” This answer is also consistent with the Preamble and Standards II.1 and II.2 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. (Note that withholding client records for nonpayment of fees in any situation may be illegal or inconsistent with laws or institutional regulations, but this question is asking specifically about ethical requirements.)
A recently divorced psychologist joins an online dating service that matches him to a former therapy client. When deciding what to do in this situation, the psychologist should remember that ethical guidelines:
A. prohibit psychologists from becoming sexually involved with former clients under any circumstances.
B. prohibit psychologists from becoming sexually involved with former clients only when therapy was terminated less than 12 months ago.
C. prohibit psychologists from becoming sexually involved with former clients unless certain conditions are met.
D. do not explicitly prohibit psychologists from becoming involved with former therapy clients.
Answer C is correct.
This answer is most consistent with Standard 10.08 of the Ethics Code. Standard 10.08(a) states that “psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with former clients/patients for at least two years after cessation or termination of therapy.” And Standard 10.08(b) states that, even when two years have passed, psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with former clients “except in the most unusual circumstances,” which includes ensuring that the relationship is not exploitative. This answer is also consistent with Standard II.28 of the Canadian Code of Ethics.
As described in the Privacy Rule of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), a therapist can deny clients access to their protected health information when they believe that access is:
A. reasonably likely to cause psychological or emotional harm to the client or other person.
B. reasonably likely to endanger the life or physical safety of the client or other person.
C. reasonably likely to endanger the psychological or physical health of the client or other person.
D. not in the best interests of the client or another person.
Answer B is correct. Denial of access to protected health information is addressed in 45 CFR 164.524(a)(2)-(4), and the language of this answer is most similar to Section (a)(3)(i). It states that a licensed health care professional can deny an individual access to his/her protected health information, when the “professional has determined, in the exercise of professional judgment, that the access requested is reasonably likely to endanger the life or physical safety of the individual or another person.” Note that, in this situation, the client has the right to have the denial reviewed by another designated licensed health care professional.
When conducting group therapy, you should:
A. remind group members that they’re legally required to maintain the confidentiality of other group members.
B. remind group members that, because they’re in therapy, they’re ethically obligated to maintain the confidentiality of other group members.
C. discuss the importance of maintaining confidentiality with group members in the initial and subsequent sessions.
D. discuss the limits of confidentiality with potential members during the screening interview and have them sign a waiver of confidentiality.
Answer C is correct. Confidentiality in group therapy is addressed in Standard 10.03 of the APA Ethics Code and Standard I.44 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. Standard 10.03 states that psychologists should inform group members about “the roles and responsibilities of all parties and the limits of confidentiality.” Although psychologists cannot ensure the confidentiality of information revealed in group therapy, they can reduce the likelihood that confidential information will be disclosed by educating group members about the importance of maintaining confidentiality and the possible negative consequences of not doing so in the initial session and then reminding them of the need to maintain confidentiality in subsequent sessions.
To serve as an expert witness in a court case, a psychologist must be:
A. determined to be qualified to do so by the attorney requesting his/her services.
B. determined to be qualified to do so by the judge.
C. certified as an expert witness by a professional forensic organization.
D. certified as an expert witness by the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards.
Answer B is correct. When an attorney representing the plaintiff or defendant in a court case wants a psychologist to provide expert testimony, the judge decides whether or not to allow that testimony. The judge’s decision is based on consideration of the relevance of the psychologist’s knowledge, skills, experience, training, and education.
Which of the following provides global scores that correspond to two theoretical models – the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of cognitive abilities and the Luria neuropsychological processing model?
A. Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition
B. Slosson Intelligence Test, Revised Third Edition
C. Cognitive Assessment System, Second Edition
D. Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition
Answer A is correct. The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II) provides five scale scores (Simultaneous, Sequential, Planning, Learning, and Knowledge) and two global scores. The global score based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of cognitive abilities includes performance on measures of acquired (crystallized) knowledge, while the global score based on the Luria neuropsychological processing model does not include performance on measures of acquired knowledge.
Toward the end of his second date with Susie S., Dr. Browne realizes that Susie is the sister of one of his clients. Dr. Brown is very attracted to Susie, would like to continue dating her, and thinks she could be “the one.” However, as an ethical psychologist, Dr. Browne:
A. will continue dating Susie only if she’s the sister of a former (not current) client of his.
B. will continue dating Susie if she’s the sister of a current client only if he discusses the potential for problems with the client and with Susie.
C. will continue dating Susie if she’s the sister of a current client only if he terminates therapy with the client.
D. will not continue dating Susie whether she’s the sister of a current or a former client.
Answer A is correct.
This situation is addressed in Standard 10.06 of the APA’s Ethics Code. It states that “psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with individuals they know to be close relatives, guardians, or significant others of current clients/patients … [and they] do not terminate therapy to circumvent this standard.” This answer is also consistent with the requirements of Standard III.28 of the Canadian Code of Ethics.
Dr. Merritt overhears Alice, one of the interns she’s supervising, making disparaging remarks about people with addictions to a group of friends on two separate occasions. However, Dr. Merritt has never observed Alice acting in an inappropriate way with clients who have any type of addiction and she hasn’t discussed what she overheard with Alice. When Alice receives her performance evaluation, Dr. Merritt has noted that one of the low ratings she assigned was due to her concern that Alice is likely to have trouble working with clients who have an addiction. With regard to ethical guidelines:
A. Dr. Merritt’s evaluation is acceptable because of the unacceptability of the disparaging remarks Alice made.
B. Dr. Merritt’s evaluation is acceptable as long as it includes an explanation for her concerns about Alice’s ability to work with clients who have an addiction.
C. Dr. Merritt’s evaluation is acceptable as long as it was provided to Alice in a timely manner and she’s willing to discuss her concerns with Alice.
D. Dr. Merritt’s evaluation is not acceptable because it was not based entirely on Alice’s actual performance as an intern.
Answer D is correct.
This answer is most consistent with Standard 7.06(b) of the APA Ethics Code and Standard II.26 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. Standard 7.06(b) states that “psychologists evaluate students and supervisees on the basis of their actual performance on relevant and established program requirements.”
Research on the Fagan Test of Intelligence has confirmed that ____________ in infancy is a good predictor of IQ in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood.
A. socio-emotional behavior
B. language production and comprehension
C. sensorimotor development
D. selective attention to novel stimuli
Answer D is correct. The Fagan Test of Intelligence is a measure of selective attention to novel stimuli, and research has found that performance on the Fagan Test is a good predictor of IQ scores in childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. See, e.g., J. F. Fagan, C. R. Holland, and K. Wheeler, The prediction, from infancy, of adult IQ and achievement, Intelligence, 35(3), 225-231, 2007.
Which of the following best describes ethical requirements regarding in-person solicitation of business?
A. Psychologists must never engage in in-person solicitation of business.
B. Psychologists must never engage in uninvited in-person solicitation of business.
C. Psychologists must not engage in in-person solicitation of business from current therapy clients who are vulnerable to undue influence.
D. Psychologists must not engage in uninvited in-person solicitation of business from current or potential therapy clients or others who are vulnerable to undue influence.
Answer D is correct. This answer is most consistent with the requirements of Standard 5.06 of the APA’s Ethics Code. It prohibits psychologists from engaging “in uninvited in-person solicitation of business from actual or potential therapy clients/patients or other persons who because of their particular circumstances are vulnerable to undue influence.” This answer is also consistent with Standard III.28 of the Canadian Code of Ethics, which prohibits psychologists from exploiting “any relationship established as a psychologist to further personal, political, or business interests at the expense of the dignity or well-being of their primary clients, contract examinees, research participants, students, trainees, employers, or others.”
Sally S., age 14, began therapy at the request of her parents who were concerned about her increasing moodiness and oppositional behaviors. During her fifth therapy session, Sally tells you she’s been thinking about killing herself. When you express your concern, she says she’s “just kidding” and asks you not to say anything to her parents. Your best course of action would be to:
A. maintain Sally’s confidentiality but monitor her suicidal ideation in future therapy sessions.
B. continue to discuss Sally’s feelings about killing herself to determine if she is actually at risk for attempting suicide.
C. contact her parents immediately to inform them of her suicidal ideation and discuss their options in this situation.
D. tell Sally you won’t contact her parents as long as she signs a no-suicide contract.
Answer B is correct. Suicide threats should always be taken seriously and, in this situation, you’d want to determine if Sally is actually at risk for attempting suicide before contacting her parents or taking any other action. Note that there’s evidence that no-suicide contracts (answer D) do not guarantee a person’s safety and should be used only as one element of a comprehensive intervention.
Which of the following best describes ethical requirements regarding the use of automated and other professional test scoring and interpretation services?
A. Psychologists should ordinarily avoid using these services.
B. Psychologists should use only services that have been approved by the APA or other professional organization.
C. Psychologists may use these services only for tests that are objectively scored.
D. Psychologists may use these services but the psychologists are responsible for the appropriate application, interpretation, and use of tests.
Answer D is correct. This answer is most consistent with the requirements of Standard 9.09(c) of the APA’s Ethics Code. It states that “psychologists retain responsibility for the appropriate application, interpretation, and use of assessment instruments, whether they score and interpret such tests themselves or use automated or other services.” It is also consistent with the requirements of Standards II.3 and II.18 of the Canadian Code of Ethics.
Emiko E. was a client of Dr. Beck for seven months. She ended therapy with Dr. Beck four months ago but calls to request an appointment because she’s feeling very anxious and depressed and has started thinking about killing herself. For the past three months, Dr. Beck has been reducing his practice by referring current clients to other therapists and not accepting new clients because he and his wife are planning to move to another state to be closer to their adult son and his family. The best course of action for Dr. Beck is to:
A. explain to Emiko that he’s no longer accepting clients and provide her with a referral to a colleague.
B. explain to Emiko that he’s no longer accepting clients and provide her with a referral to a colleague and tell her he’s willing to consult with the new therapist.
C. agree to see Emiko in therapy until her crisis has passed and then provide her with a referral to a colleague if she needs additional therapy sessions.
D. tell Emiko to have a friend or family member take her to the hospital if she starts feeling that she can’t control the impulse to kill herself.
Answer C is correct. This situation is not directly addressed in ethical guidelines. However, this answer is most consistent with the “spirit” of the guidelines because it’s the response that best addresses Emiko’s welfare (see, e.g., Standard 10.09 of the APA’s Ethics Code and Principle II.35 of the Canadian Code of Ethics). Answers A and B are not the best answers because Emiko seems to need immediate assistance due to her suicidal ideation, and starting therapy with a new therapist (who may not be able to see her right away) would not be adequate.
And answer D is not the best answer because Emiko may or may not be capable of or motivated to follow through on the suggestion to have someone take her to the hospital if she starts feeling like she can’t control the impulse to attempt suicide.
During your second session with Anita A., she says she wants to tell you something she hasn’t told anyone else. After a few moments of silence, she reveals that she’s been seeing another therapist for three months but started seeing you because she’s concerned about his behavior. She tells you that, in her last few sessions with that therapist, he touched her inappropriately and said he was doing so to help her deal with her fear of physical and sexual intimacy. As an ethical psychologist, you should:
A. convince Anita to terminate therapy with the other therapist immediately and then help her work through her feelings about what has happened.
B. encourage Anita to terminate therapy with the other therapist immediately and file a complaint against him with the ethics committee.
C. explain to Anita the seriousness of her allegation and discuss the options she has in this situation.
D. tell Anita you’re ethically required to file a complaint against the other therapist because of the seriousness of her allegation.
Answer C is the correct. Of the answers given, this is the best one because it respects Anita’s autonomy (i.e., it doesn’t involve convincing or encouraging her to do something) and it does not violate the ethical requirement to address ethical violations by colleagues but to do so in a way that does not violate the client’s confidentiality.
To be consistent with ethical guidelines when conducting research, psychologists:
A. must always debrief research participants immediately after their participation.
B. must debrief research participants after their participation only when they may have been physically or psychologically harmed by their participation in the study.
C. should ordinarily debrief research participants immediately after their participation but, when that isn’t possible, should take steps to reduce the risk for harm.
D. should debrief research participants immediately after their participation if they’ve been deceived about some aspects of the study.
Answer C is correct. This answer is most consistent with Standard 8.08 of the APA’s Ethics Code and Principles II.47 and III.25 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. Standard 8.08(a) states that “psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results, and conclusions of the research, and they take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions that participants may have of which the psychologists are aware. Standard 8.08(b) states “if scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, psychologists take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm.”
Dr. Stein is a family therapist who believes therapy is most effective when all members of the immediate family attend all therapy sessions. During his second session with the Miller family, Mr. Miller is absent and Mrs. Miller says that, while her husband came to the first therapy session, he is unwilling to attend any additional sessions. The best course of action in this situation is for Dr. Stein to:
A. continue seeing Mrs. Miller and the children but encourage Mrs. Miller to convince Mr. Miller to attend at least some of the therapy sessions.
B. continue seeing Mrs. Miller and the children only if Mr. Miller agrees to see Dr. Stein in individual therapy.
C. continue seeing Mrs. Miller and the children only if his initial impression is that the family’s presenting problem is due primarily to Mrs. Miller’s relationships with her children.
D. refer Mrs. Miller to another family therapist who is willing to see only some members of the family.
Answer D is correct. To identify the correct answer to this question, you have to notice that the question states that Dr. Stein “believes therapy is most effective when all members of the immediate family attend all therapy sessions.” Some family therapists are amenable to seeing only some family members. However, Dr. Stein is not one of these therapists, so a referral to another therapist is the best course of action.
Your current client, Maggie M., invites you to a party she’s having to celebrate the completion of her dissertation. As an ethical psychologist, you:
A. refuse the invitation and explain to Maggie why it would be unethical for you to attend her party.
B. accept the invitation but make sure Maggie understands that you normally don’t attend social events with clients but will attend this party because it’s a special occasion.
C. discuss the potential conflicts that could arise with Maggie and ways to avoid them before accepting her invitation.
D. consider the nature of your therapeutic relationship with Maggie and the potential effect on her of your acceptance or refusal of her invitation before deciding whether or not to accept the invitation.
Answer D is correct. Standard 3.05 of the APA’s Ethics Code prohibits multiple relationships that “could be reasonably expected to impair the psychologist’s objectivity, competence, or effectiveness … or otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the person.” And Standard III.30 of the Canadian Code of Ethics requires psychologists to “avoid dual relationships … that are not justified by the nature of the activity, by cultural or geographic factors, or where there is a lack of reasonably accessible alternatives.” Neither document prohibits all types of multiple relationships; and, in the situation described in this question, your first action would be to consider the nature of your therapeutic relationship with Maggie and the possible effects on that relationship of accepting or refusing her invitation. Discussing potential conflicts with Maggie (answer C) isn’t a better answer because it implies that you would accept her invitation regardless of the outcome of that discussion.
Dr. Maddox has been in private practice for nearly 25 years, and her specialty has been treating depression in adolescents and young adults. Now that she’s turned 50, she has more interest in working with older adults. To be consistent with ethical requirements, Dr. Maddox should:
A. see older adults in therapy only if alternative mental health services for members of this population are unavailable in her community.
B. take a relevant APA-approved continuing education course before accepting older adults as clients.
C. see older adults in therapy if she’s able to obtain consultation while doing so with a colleague who has experience working with members of this population.
D. see older adults in therapy but closely monitor her effectiveness and obtain consultation or additional education if she encounters any problems.
Answer C is correct. This answer is most consistent with the requirements of Standard 2.01 of the APA’s Ethics Code and Standard II.6 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. Standard 2.01 requires psychologists to obtain appropriate education, training, and consultation when they want to provide professional services to members of new populations or use new therapeutic techniques. While obtaining additional education would be useful, taking a single continuing education course (answer B) or obtaining additional education when a problem arises (answer D) would not be adequate.
A psychology intern working at a mental health clinic tells her supervisor that, during the first session with a new client, he revealed that he’s gay. The intern says she does not want to work with this client or any other gay or lesbian clients because homosexuality violates her religious beliefs. The supervisor should:
A. tell the intern that she should just treat the client like any other client and volunteer to provide her with additional supervision as needed to help her do so.
B. tell the intern that she has to work with diverse clients (including homosexual clients) to complete her internship and volunteer to provide her with additional supervision to help her resolve the conflict between her religious beliefs and the requirements of her internship.
C. determine if it’s necessary to reassign the intern’s current client to another therapist and reassure the intern that she has the right to refuse to work with gay and lesbian clients.
D. determine if it’s necessary to reassign the intern’s current client to another therapist and discuss with the intern ways that might help her reconcile the conflict between her religious beliefs and the requirement that psychologists work effectively with diverse (including homosexual) clients.
Answer D is correct. Conflicts between religious values and professional competence when working with diverse clients have been addressed by a number of experts. For example, the APA’s Virtual Working Group on Restrictions Affecting Diversity Training in Graduate Education developed a Sample Program Policy Statement that articulates the policy for APA-accredited programs when trainees experience conflicts when working with diverse clients. Among other things, its states that the program is committed to helping trainees develop the knowledge and skills they need to work with diverse clients and to providing trainees with additional time and faculty support to help them integrate their personal values with the professional competence they need to work with all clients. Answer D is the best answer because it not only reflects this position but also takes into account the welfare of the intern’s current client. See, e.g., E. H. Wise, K. J. Bieschke, L. Forrest, J. Cohen-Filpic, W. L. Hathaway, and L. A. Douce, Psychology’s proactive approach to conscience clause court cases and legislation, Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 9, 259-268, 2015.
A psychologist routinely administers a measure of clinical symptomology to most of his clients, who are young and middle-aged adults. Several older adults have been recently referred to him, but the measure he routinely uses has little or no information about its validity for members of this population. With regard to ethical requirements:
A. it would be acceptable for the psychologist to administer this measure to older clients as long as alternative measures are unavailable.
B. it would be acceptable for the psychologist to administer this measure to older clients if alternative measures are unavailable and he explains the possible limitations of its results to the clients.
C. it would be acceptable for the psychologist to administer this measure to older clients as long as he obtains informed consents from the clients before doing so.
D. it would be unacceptable for the psychologist to administer this measure to older clients under any circumstances.
Answer B is correct. This answer is most consistent with the requirements of Standard 9.02(b) of the APA Ethics Code and Standard III.8 of the Canadian Code of Ethics. Standard 9.02(b) states that, when the reliability and validity of the tests they use haven’t been established for members of the population being tested, psychologists “describe the strengths and limitations of test results and interpretations.” And Standard III.8 requires psychologists to acknowledge the limitations of their findings.
By the end of the first session with a client, you realize that his symptoms meet the diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder. You’ve learned from past experience that clients with this diagnosis often fail to pay their bills and, for this reason, decide not to continue seeing him in therapy. With regard to ethical requirements, this is:
A. unacceptable because it violates the prohibition against discrimination.
B. unacceptable if you have adequate training and experience to treat this client.
C. acceptable as long as you provide the client with referrals to other mental health professionals.
D. acceptable as long as you explain to the client why you cannot continue seeing him in therapy.
Answer C is correct. Standard 3.01 of the APA Ethics Code prohibits psychologists from unfairly discriminating on the basis of age, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or other basis proscribed by law. And Standard I.9 of the Canadian Code of Ethics states that psychologists do “not practice, condone, facilitate, or collaborate with any form of unjust discrimination,” which is defined in the Preamble as “activities that are prejudicial to or promote prejudice against persons or peoples because of their
culture, nationality, ethnicity,
colour, race,
religion,
sex, gender, marital status, sexual orientation,
physical or mental abilities,
age,
socio-economic status, or any other preference or personal characteristic, condition, or status.”
Neither Code requires psychologists to accept all individuals seeking their services, and not seeing clients who may be unwilling or unable to pay their fees would not constitute unfair or unjust discrimination as defined in these standards.
When a parent, insurance company, or other third party is no longer willing to pay a client’s fee for therapy and the client is unable to pay the full fee him/herself, a psychologist should do which of the following to be consistent with ethical requirements?
A. provide services at a reduced fee until the client is able to pay the full fee
B. help the client find another source of financial assistance
C. provide pretermination counseling and referrals to alternative services
D. make sure the client understands why the psychologist is no longer able to provide services
Answer C is correct. Standard 10.10(c) of the APA Ethics Code and Standard II.34 of the Canadian Code of Ethics apply to this situation. Standard 10.10(c) states, “except where precluded by the actions of clients/patients or third-party payors, prior to termination psychologists provide pretermination counseling and suggest alternative service providers as appropriate.” And Standard II.34 states that psychologists should provide clients “with reasonable assistance to find a way to receive needed services in the event that third party payments are exhausted and the primary client cannot afford the fees involved.”
Dr. O’Leary, a neuropsychologist, administers a number of tests to new patients with traumatic brain injury to assist with differential diagnosis and treatment planning. She decides to also use her patients’ test data in a research study she will be conducting on the effects of traumatic brain injury on memory. In terms of ethical requirements, this is:
A. acceptable.
B. acceptable as long as she takes steps to protect the confidentiality of the data that will be used in her research study.
C. unacceptable unless she gets the patients’ consent to use their test information in the research study.
D. unacceptable under any circumstances.
Answer C is correct. This answer is most consistent with the requirements of Standard 9.03(a) of the APA Ethics Code and Standard I.23 of the Canadian Code of Ethics, which require informed consents for assessment to include a description of the purpose of the assessment. Dr. O’Leary originally administered the tests for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment planning (and presumably obtained consent from her patients for that purpose) and she must also obtain consent to include their test data in her research study.
Dr. Crosby, a licensed psychologist, wants to take two weeks off next month from her full-time private practice to spend time with her father who lives alone and will be having hip replacement surgery. With regard to her current therapy clients, Dr. Crosby’s best course of action is to:
A. let her clients know about her plans and arrange to conduct their sessions on the phone or Internet during her absence.
B. give her clients the phone number of a colleague who is willing to accept their calls and see them in case of an emergency.
C. let her clients know about her plans as soon as she finalizes them so they have time to process her absence before she leaves.
D. explain to her clients that she is leaving because of a family emergency and reassure them that they’ll be okay without her for two weeks.
Answer B is correct. Standard 3.12 of the APA Ethics Code and Standard II.33 of the Canadian Code of Ethics address the interruption of services in a general way, and it’s up to psychologists to determine the best course of action. Since Dr. Crosby’s absence is going to be relatively brief, the best action of those described in the answers would be to discuss it with clients immediately and provide them with the phone number of a colleague whom they can contact in case of an emergency. Note that answer A is not the best answer because psychologists may, of course, take time off from work and it’s not likely that Dr. Crosby would be able to keep all of her appointments while caring for her father.
