Ethical issues and ways to deal with them

Question 1

Confidentiality

Answer 1

Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected.

Question 2

Confidentiality - researcher’s point of view

Answer 2

It may be difficult to protect confidentiality because the researcher wishes to publish the findings.
A researcher may guarantee anonymity but even then it may be obvious who has been involved in a study.

Question 3

Anonymity

Answer 3

Withholding participants’ names.

Question 4

Confidentiality - participants’ point of view

Answer 4

The Data Protection Act makes confidentiality a legal right.
It’s only acceptable for personal data to be recorded if the data is not made available in a form that identifies the participants.

Question 5

Deception

Answer 5

A participant isn’t told the true aims of a study.
They therefore can’t give valid consent.

Question 6

Deception - researcher’s point of view

Answer 6

It can be necessary to deceive participants about the true aims of a study otherwise participants might alter their behaviour and the study would therefore be meaningless.
However, a distinction should be made between withholding some of the details of the research aims and deliberately providing false information.

Question 7

Deception - participants’ point of view

Answer 7

Deception is unethical.
The researcher shouldn’t deceive anyone without good cause.
Deception prevents participants being able to give valid consent.
They may agree to participate without really knowing what they’ve let themselves in for.
They might also be distressed by the experience.
Deception can also lead people to see psychologists as untrustworthy.
It might mean that a participant may not want to participate in future psychological research.

Question 8

Privacy

Answer 8

A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves.

Question 9

Privacy - researcher’s point of view

Answer 9

it may be difficult to avoid invasion of privacy when studying participants without their awareness.
For example:
In a field experiment.

Question 10

Privacy - participants’ point of view

Answer 10

People don’t expect to be observed by others in certain situations.

Question 11

Difference between confidentiality and privacy

Answer 11

Confidentiality concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that this information will be protected.
Privacy refers to a zone of inaccessibility of mind or body, and the trust that this will not be “invaded”.

Question 12

Risk of harm

Answer 12

During a research study, participants shouldn’t experience negative physical or psychological effects beyond what would be normal for them to experience.
For example:
Physical injury.
Lowered self-esteem.
Embarrassment.

Question 13

Risk of harm - researcher’s point of view

Answer 13

Studying some of the more important questions in psychology may involve a degree of risk of harm to participants.
It’s also difficult to predict the outcome of certain procedures.
Therefore, it’s difficult to guarantee protection from any risk of harm.

Question 14

Risk of harm - participants’ point of view

Answer 14

Nothing should happen to participants during a study that causes harm.
It’s only considered acceptable if the risk of harm is no greater than a participant would be likely to experience in ordinary life and If participants are in the same state after a study as they were before.
This is unless they have given their valid consent to be treated otherwise.

Question 15

Valid consent

Answer 15

Participants are given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order to make an informed decision about whether to participate.

Question 16

Valid consent - researcher’s point of view

Answer 16

Valid consent means revealing the true aims of the study or at least telling participants what’s actually going to happen.
However, if a participant is told the true aims of a study, they may change the way they behave.

Question 17

Valid consent - participants’ point of view

Answer 17

Participants should be told what they will be required to do in a study so that they can make an informed decision about whether they wish to participate.
This is a basic human right established during the Nuremberg war trials.
Even if researchers have obtained valid consent, that doesn’t guarantee that participants understand what they’ve let themselves in for.
The researcher is also required to point out any benefits or risks of participation.
This is something that the researcher may not always be able to accurately predict.

Question 18

Epstein and Lasagna (1969)

Answer 18

Found that only a third of participants volunteering for an experiment really understood what they had agreed to take part in.

Question 19

Ethical guidelines (code of conduct)

Answer 19

A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly with integrity.

Question 20

The BPS code of ethics and conduct - valid consent

Answer 20

Failure to make full disclosure prior to obtaining valid consent requires additional safeguards to protect the welfare and dignity of the participants.
Research with children or with participants who have impairments that limit understanding and / or communication to the extent that they’re unable to give their consent, requires special safe-guarding procedures.

Question 21

The BPS code of ethics and conduct - deception

Answer 21

The central principle is the reaction of participants when deception is revealed.
If this leads to discomfort, anger or objections from participants then the deception is inappropriate.

Question 22

The BPS code of ethics and conduct - risk of harm

Answer 22

If harm, unusual discomfort or other negative consequences for the individual’s future might occur, the investigator must obtain the approval of independent advisors, inform participants and obtain valid consent from each of them.

Question 23

Ethical guidelines - evaluation

Answer 23

The “rules and sanctions” approach is general because of the virtual impossibility of covering every conceivable situation that a researcher may encounter.
The Canadians take a different approach.
They present a series of hypothetical dilemmas and invite psychologists to discuss these.
This encourages debate, whereas the BPS approach tends to close off discussions about what’s right and wrong since the answers are provided.
Guidelines also absolve the individual researcher of any responsibility since they can simply say that they followed the guidelines.
Absolve - declare someone free from guilt, obligation or punishment.

Question 24

Ethics committee

Answer 24

A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins.

Question 25

Presumptive consent

Answer 25

A method of dealing with lack of valid consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they’d agree to take part in a study.
If this group of people consents to the procedures in the proposed study, it’s presumed that the real participants would’ve also agreed.

Question 26

Right to withdraw

Answer 26

Participants can stop participating in a study if they’re uncomfortable in any way.
This is especially important in cases where it wasn’t possible to give valid consent.
Participants should also have right to refuse permission for the researchers to use any data they produced.

Question 27

Right to withdraw - evaluation

Answer 27

Participants may feel they shouldn’t withdraw because it will affect the study.
In many studies participants are paid or rewarded in some way, and may not feel able to withdraw.

Question 28

Debriefing

Answer 28

A post-research interview designed to inform participants of the true nature of the study and restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study.
it may also be used to gain useful feedback about the procedures in the study.

Question 29

Debriefing - evaluation

Answer 29

Participants might still feel cheated if they were deceived or still feel embarrassed by their behaviour despite reassurances.
Therefore, debriefing is only a partial solution.