ERGO M6 - M8 Flashcards
These are experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses
PERCEPTION
TRUE OR FALSE:
Sensation can change based on added information
False. Perception instead of Sensation
True or False: Perceptions occur in conjunction with actions
True
True or False: Sensation is the top-down way our brain organize and interpret the information and put it into context.
False. Perception dapat.
True or False: Perception is the bottom-up process by which our senses, like vision, hearing and smell, receive and relay outside stimuli.
False: Sensation dapat
Perception involves complex, and usually invisible processes that resemble _________
reasoning
Perception can be involved in a process similar to reasoning or problem solving, based on ________
a person’s past experiences
WHAT ARE 4 WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
– Authentic Communication
– Empathy
– Positive Attitude
– Cultural Influences
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
_________ - Becomes very important as communication has to be proper and effective and needs to be understood by others in the way you wish it to be understood.
Authentic Communication
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
________ - it helps to understand the situation by keeping oneself in the shoes of others.
Empathy
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
keeping a __________ also helps in improving the perception. For example, consider an
employee who is not performing up to the expectations of the superiors and has since been a
consistent failure, however, by keeping a positive attitude, he/she can take effective control of situation, thus preventing one’s perception to
get distorted.
positive attitude
WAYS TO IMPROVE PERCEPTION
_______ - an individual’s upbringing to an extent guides one’s perception. Though it may be difficult for an
individual to change one’s perception, yet one should try to be flexible and accommodating enough to be able to shape up one’s perception.
Cultural Influences
Types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
▪ an individual is perceived based on a single trait.
▪ a single trait may cast its influence on all other traits
Halo Effect
Example: A person may have done some good work, some time ago which was highly appreciated by his boss. This deed by the individual might have touched the boss to such an extent that all other qualities, be it negative, get overshadowed by just one good deed of the individual. Such an error often finds its way in the performance appraisal exercise wherein the rater tends to rate an individual very high or very low based on a single trait, thus permitting a high degree of bias to creep into the appraisal.
Types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
▪ may disrupt the perceptual process
▪ in its simplest sense would mean “typecast”
Stereotype
Example: A teacher may stereotype that ‘back benchers are laggards’ or a boss may typecast that ‘athletes make up good salesmen’. Such types of generalized statements may influence the interview process for instance and may bias the interview ratings.
What are 3 types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS?
– Halo Effect
– Stereotype
– Projection
Types OF PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
▪ often creeps in due to incorrect perception of an individual
▪ seen during interviews that when the panelists are taking the interview of a candidate, it is very likely that one or more panelists may see their projection in the candidate or in other words their likes or dislikes may be the same as that of the candidate and hence their interview ratings could get biased
Projection
Example: While probing the personality of a candidate, the interviewer may ask about the hobbies of the candidate, to which the candidate may respond with an answer which conveys a set of hobbies that is like one or more of the panelist. In such a situation, the interviewer is likely to see his personality in the candidate which may compel him to skew the rating.
________ can be defined as a process wherein the individuals receive various stimuli, organize their
impressions, interpret in their own way, thereby giving some meaning to the environment.
perception
Perception Process
(Describe the Input)
It includes various _______ which are received, or an individual is _____ on a daily basis
– stimuli
– bombarded
Perception Process
(Describe the Throughput)
This stage essentially represents the processing stage wherein the stimuli are ___________ by an
individual and taken ahead in the system. These are organized and taken further ahead for _________.
– selectively filtered
– interpretation
Perception Process
(Describe the OUTPUT)
The output here pertains to
__________ displayed. This,
of course, could be _____ or _____ for an organization. Hence, the significance of perception from an organizational standpoint is very essential.
– behavior
– desirable
– undesirable
_____ is one’s estimate of the probability of a given outcome is influenced by two factors.
▪ ________
▪ ________
– BAYESIAN INFERENCE
– The prior probability
– The likelihood of a given outcome
_____ describes the way we perceive verticals and horizontals more easily than other orientations.
Oblique Effect
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing similar things appear grouped together.
Principle of Similarity
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing differently colored areas if the dress are perceptually grouped with the same colors in the scene.
Color Causes Grouping
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing lines tend to be seen as following the smoothest path
Principle of Good Continuation
A GESTALT PRINCIPLE OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION describing:
▪ Principle of simplicity or good figure
▪ Every stimulus pattern is seen so the resulting
structure is as simple as possible.
Law of Pragnanz
Perceptual Organization:
▪ Old View – __________
▪ New View – _________
– Structuralism
– Gestalt Principles
_______ - perception involves adding up sensations. According to this, a number of _______ (represented by the dots), add up to create our perception of the face.
– Structuralism
– sensations
_______ - the mind groups patterns according to intrinsic laws of perceptual organization.
Gestalt Principles
▪ It is the central to our ability to organize the actions that occur as we interact with the environment.
▪ It creates a picture of our environment and helps us take action within it, as it plays a central role in our general cognition.
▪ It is essential for creating memories, acquiring knowledge, solving problems, communicating with
other people, recognizing someone you met last week, and answering questions on a cognitive ergonomics exam.
Perception
▪ ________ : Refers to the task of determining the object responsible for a particular image on the retina.
▪ Involves starting with the ________ and then extending ______(inward or outward) to the _____ of that image.
▪ Light from an object is _________ as it falls on the _____.
First bullet
– Inverse Projection Problem
Second bullet:
– retinal image
– outward
– source
Third bullet
– Inverted
– retina
t or f
People never identify objects that are obscured and therefore incomplete, or in some cases objects that are blurry.
FALSE: they can often identify blurred and obscured objects
Computer-vision systems can achieve _______ only by a laborious process that involves complex calculations designed to determine which points on an object match in
different views.
viewpoint invariance
▪ Scenes are more complex.
▪ Not only are there often many objects in a scene, but they may be providing information about the scene that requires some reasoning to figure out.
These results to scenes containing _______
High Level Information
The human perceptual system uses two types of information:
– ______
– _____
Knowledge and expectations
Environmental energy
One of the human perceptual system types of information:
_______ the observer brings to the situation.
Knowledge and expectations
One of the human perceptual system types of information:
______ stimulates the receptors.
Environmental energy
APPROACHES TO UNDERSTAND PERCEPTION
________ refers to:
▪ Bottom-up Processing
▪ Perception comes from stimuli in the environment
▪ Parts are identified and put together, and then
recognition occurs
Direct Perception Theories
APPROACHES TO UNDERSTAND PERCEPTION
________ refers to:
▪ Top-down Processing
▪ People actively construct perceptions using
information based on expectations
▪ Constructive Perception Theories
▪ Perception may start with the senses
▪ Incoming raw data
▪ Energy registering on receptors
Bottom-up Processing
What type of processing
▪ Perception mat start with the brain
▪ Person’s knowledge, experience, and expectations
Top-down Processing
True or False:
Bottom-up processing influences our perception of language based on our individual experience with the language.
False: Top-down dapat
The ability to tell when one word ends and another begins
Speech segmentation
Knowing which sound will likely follow another in a word
Transitional probabilities
True or False:
▪ Some perceptions are the results of unconscious assumptions we make about the environment.
▪ We use our knowledge to inform our perceptions.
True
_________ - We perceive the world in a way that is “most likely” based on our past experience
Likelihood Principle
True or False:
This aspect happens in our everyday perception. While in motion, we shift our attention from one thing to another to perceive what is happening
True
The ability to FOCUS on specific stimuli or locations in our environment.
Attention
Type of Attention.
Attending to one thing while IGNORING others
Selective attention
Type of Attention.
Paying attention to MORE than one thing at a time
Divided attention
Type of Attention.
“
▪ We DO NOT attend to a large fraction of the information in the environment.
▪ We FILTER out some information and promote other information for further processing.
“
Selective Attention
In Selective Attention,
Attention filtering occurs in either: _________, or ________.
early in processing
later in processing
In Selective Attention,
Early selection model: AKA _____
Broadbent’s Filter Model
In Selective Attention,
Intermediate selection model: AKA _______
Treisman’s Attenuation Model
In Selective Attention,
Late selection model: ______ (Who developed and What year ??)
MacKay (1973)
WHAT RESEARCH METHOD: ____
▪ One message is presented to the left ear and another to the right ear.
▪ The participant “shadows” one message to ensure he is attending to that message.
DICHOTIC LISTENING
Additional Notes:
Participants could not report the content of the message in unattended ear:
▪ Knew that there was a message
▪ Knew the gender of the speaker
However, unattended ear is being processed at some level:
▪ Cocktail party effect
▪ Change in gender is noticed
▪ Changed to a tone is noticed
_________ was designed to explain the results of an experiment done by Colin Cherry (1953), where Cherry studied attention using a technique called dichotic listening
Broadbent’s filter model
Cherry studied attention using a technique called _______, where _______ refers to presenting
different stimuli to the left AND right ears.
The participant’s task in this experiment is to focus on the message in one ear, called the ________, and to repeat
what he or she is hearing out loud
dichotic listening
dichotic
attended ear
di = AND
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL
This procedure of repeating the words as they are heard is called _________
shadowing
_____________
▪ Filters message BEFORE incoming information is analyzed for meaning.
Early selection model or
BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
- Holds all incoming information
for a fraction of a second
▪ Transfers all information to next
stage
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Sensory memory
1st
(SFDM)
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
▪ Identifies attended message
based on physical
characteristics
▪ ONLY attended message is
passed on the next stage
BONUS: __nth step of the model
FILTER
2nd
(SFDM)
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
Processes all information to
determine high-level
characteristics of the message
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Detector
3rd
(SFDM)
In BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL, _______________
▪ Receives output of detector
▪ Holds information for _________
seconds and may transfer it to
long-term memory
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Short-term memory
10 to 15 seconds
4th
(SFDM)
LIMITATIONS OF BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL
Why participant’s name gets through:
▪ _________ phenomenon
Cocktail party
True or False
BROADBENT’S FILTER MODEL is not limited to answer the question “why participant’s can shadow meaningful messages that switch from one ear to another”
False. The question is considered a limitation as it contradicts the model.. diba?
– Dear Aunt Jane
_____________ describes:
- Attended message can be SEPARATED from unattended message early in the information-
processing system.
▪ Selection can also occur later
Intermediate selection model
OR
TREISMAN’S ATTENUATION MODEL
In a TREISMAN’S ATTENUATION MODEL
__________ analyzes incoming message in terms of physical
characteristics, language, and meaning.
▪ Attended message is let through at full strength.
▪ Unattended message is let through at much weaker strength.
BONUS: __nth step of the model
Attenuator
1st
(AD)
True or False
Attenuator.
Unattended message is let through at full strength.
False. At weak strength
If attended messages, then at full strength
In a TREISMAN’S ATTENUATION MODEL
_________
▪ Contains WORDS, each of which has a threshold for being
activated.
▪ WORDS that are common or important have low thresholds
▪ Uncommon WORDS have high thresholds
Dictionary Unit
True or False
Dictionary Unit.
WORDS that are common or important have low thresholds
True.
So uncommon words means high thresholds
Read only
The dictionary unit of Treisman’s attenuation model of
selective attention contains words, each of which has a
threshold for being detected. This graph shows the
thresholds that might exist for three words.
The person’s NAME has a low threshold, so it will be easily detected.
The thresholds for the words rutabaga and boat are higher,
because they are used less or are LESS important to this
particular listener.
So unimportant is high threshold. less detected
_____________
- Selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after information has been analyzed for meaning
▪ Meaning of the biasing word affected participants’ choice.
▪ Participants were unaware of the presentation of the biasing words.
______ person involved or nakadiscover siguro
– LATE SELECTION MODELS
– MacKay (1973)
Scenario (read only)
In attended ear, participants heard ambiguous sentences.
▪ “They were throwing stones at the bank.”
In the unattended ear, participants head either detected “river” or “money”
When people try to ignore distracting stimuli when they focus their attention on a certain task, they consider two factors, Processing capacity and Perceptual load.
What theory is this?
LOAD THEORY OF ATTENTION
Under LOAD THEORY OF ATTENTION
____ is the AMOUNT of information people can handle and sets a limit on their ability to process
incoming information
Processing capacity
Under LOAD THEORY OF ATTENTION
____ is the difficulty of a task
Perceptual load
True or flas
▪ High-load (difficult) tasks use higher amounts of processing capacity
▪ Low-load (easy) tasks use lower amounts of processing capacity
Tru
True or False
The load theory of attention:
(a) LOW-load tasks that use FEW cognitive resources may leave resources “unavailable” for processing unattended task-irrelevant stimuli
False.
“AVAILABLE”
if madali idetect, mas available madetetect irrelevant stimuli
True or False
high-load tasks that use all of a
person’s cognitive resources “leave” any resources to process
unattended task irrelevant stimuli.
False.
Dont Leave
_____________
▪ Name of the word interferes with the ability to name the ink color.
▪ Cannot avoid paying attention to the meanings of the words
Stroop Effect
true or false
reading is an automatic process
True
___ describes Eye movements, attention, and perception.
Studies by using an eye tracker
OVERT ATTENTION
overt = plainly seen
_____: rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another.
Saccades
____: short pauses on points of interest
Fixations
______: areas that stand out and capture attention.
▪ Example: color and motion
Stimulus salience
____: knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes
▪ Example: guided fixations from one area of a scene to another
Scene schema
____: directing attention without moving the eyes
▪ Example: when participants respond faster to a light at an expected location than at an unexpected location
Precueing:
True or false
Practice enables people to simultaneously do two things that were difficult at first.
true
____ and ____ discovered:
Divide attention between remembering target and monitoring rapidly presented stimuli
Schneider and Shiffrin (1977)
in case need tao
________: one to four characters called target stimuli.
Memory Set
______: could contain random dot patterns, a target, and distractors.
Test frames
________ occurs without intention and only uses some of a person’s cognitive
resources.
Automatic processing
What Study
- Video recorders placed in cars
▪ Accident risk is 4x higher when using a cellphone
100-car Naturalistic Driving Study
True or false
▪ Accident risk is 6x higher when using a cellphone
false.
4x higher lang
True or false
Participants on phone missed three times as many red lights
and took longer to apply the brakes.
Same result using “hands-free” cell phone.
false. twice lang
Stimulus that is not attended is not perceived, even though a person might be looking directly at
it.
Inattentional Blindness
di mo napansin merong something pala
What are these 2 types of OBJECT BASED VISUAL ATTENTION.
____. Moving attention from one PLACE to another.
____. Attention being directed to one place on an object
Location based
Objected Based
Attention can be based on the:
▪ ________. Static scenes or scenes with few objects
▪ ________. Dynamic event
Environment
Specific Objects
___________ describes the ff:
- If shown two versions of a picture, differences between them are not immediately apparent.
▪ Task to identify differences requires concentrated attention and search.
Change Blindness
di mo napansin may nagbago pala, unless w/ full concentration
The process by which features such as color, form, motion, and location are combined to create
our perception of a coherent object.
Binding
that attention must be directed serially to each stimulus in a display whenever CONJUCTIONS of more than one separable feature are needed to characterize or distinguish the possible objects presented. (FROM GOOGLE)
also addresses Balint’s syndrome
FEATURE INTEGRATION THEORY
____ describes
▪ Inability to focus attention on individual objects.
▪ High number of illusory conjunctions were reported.
Balint’s syndrome
What are the 2 stages of FEATURE INTEGRATION THEORY
then ano itsura ng model
Object > Preattentive stage > Focus attention stage > Perception
True or False
▪ Attention enhances neural responding.
true
t or f
▪ Attentional processing is distributed across only a few number of areas in the brain
false.
across large numbers
what are 4 other models of attention
▪ __________. Monitoring several sources of information to determine occurrence of a particular event.
▪ _________ Attending to ONE source of information and exclude other sources.
▪ _________. Two or more SEPARATE tasks are performed simultaneously.
▪ _________. Attention over PROLONGED periods.
Selective Attention
Focused Attention
Divided Attention
Sustained Attention
___ is the processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images,
events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present
Memory
Active anytime some past experience has an impact on how you think or behave now or in the
future
memory
Modal Model of Memory was developed by ____ and ____
Atkinson and Shiffrin
model ish:
Input> Sensory Memory > STM >< LTM
output from STM
______. is the initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second.
Sensory Memory
Short term memory Holds five to seven items for about
____ seconds.
15 to 20
Can hold a large amount of
information for years of even
decades
Long term of memry
_____ are active processes
that can be controlled by the person
through:
▪ Rehearsal
▪ Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable
▪ Strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli
Control Processes
It is the retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of the sensory stimulation.
▪ Information decays very quickly
Sensory Memory
____: retention of the perception of light
▪ Trail of light from a moving sparkler
▪ Frames in film
Persistence of vision
What experiment and what year
Measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory
▪ Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen
▪ Participants are asked to report as many as possible
(Sperling’s Experiment, 1960)
Adtl info:
▪ Whole report method: participants asked to report as many as could be seen
▪ Average of 4.5 out of 12 letters (37.50%)
▪ Partial report method: participants heard tone that told them which row of letters to report
▪ Average of 3.3 out of 4 letters (82%)
▪ Participants could report any of the rows
▪ Delayed partial report method: presentation of tone delayed for a fraction of a second after the
letters were extinguished.
▪ Performance decreases rapidly
IN Sperling’s experiment
The decrease in performance
is due to the ____ of iconic memory (sensory memory in the modal model)
rapid decay
___: Brief sensory memory of the things that we SEE (visual system – for seconds)
Iconic Memory
Brief sensory memory of the things that we HEAR (auditory system – about 1 second
Echoic Memory
True or false
Sensory memory is not Relatively automatic
false
little can be done to increase the length of sensory representation.
To retain the information gained from Sensory Memory for a longer period, it must be transferred to _______
short term memory.
T or f
Sensory memory require attention for the attention to be maintained
false. does not
_____ Includes both new information received from the sensory stores and information recalled from long- term memory.
Reduction in performance explained by decay, the vanishing of a memory trace due to the passage of time and exposure to competing stimuli
Short term memory
What are the 3 types of codes under memory
Visual
Phoetic
Semantic (meaning)
____ procedure used to measure the capacity of short-term memory
Change detection
Short term memory capacity is
7+/ -2 chunks of information
or 5 to 9
in terms of SHORT-TERM MEMORY
_____ - small units can be combined into larger meaningful units
Chunking
in terms of SHORT-TERM MEMORY
____ - UNIT of the working memory space, defined jointly by the physical and cognitive properties that bind items within the chunk together.
chunk
True or false
chunk is a collection of elements weakly associated with one another but strongly associated with elements in other chunks
false
strongly muna bago weakly
Strength of information decays over time unless it is periodically reactivated or “pulsed” (Cowan, 2001), a process called ________
maintenance rehearsal
5 limits of short term mem
- change detection
- capacity
- time
- Confusability and Similarity
- attention and Similarity
___ describes Limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks
such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning
Working memory
t or f
Working memory differs from short-term memory (STM
t
____ is concerned with the storage, processing and manipulation of information, and is active
during complex cognition
working memory
In Baddeley’s working memory model
______ is the verbal and auditory information
PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
In Baddeley’s working memory model
____ is the visual and spatial information
visuospatial sketch pad
In PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
_____ Has a limited capacity and holds information only a few seconds
Phonological Store
In PHONOLOGICAL LOOP
___ is responsible for rehearsal that can keep items in the phonological store from decaying.
Articulatory Rehearsal Process
what are the three Phenomena Supporting Phonological Loop
__________
- Letters or words that sound similar are confused
_________
▪ Memory for lists of words is better for short words than for long words
▪ Takes longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall
__________
▪ Speaking prevents one from rehearsing items to be remembered
▪ Reduces memory span
▪ Eliminates word length effect
▪ Reduces phonological similarity effect for reading words
▪ Phonological similarity effect
▪ Word length effect
▪ Articulatory suppression
the creation of visual images in the mind in the absence of a physical visual stimulus.
Visual imagery
_________ is an example of the operation
of the visuospatial sketch pad because it
involves visual rotation through space.
______ and _____ describes this phenomena
mental rotation
Shepard and Metzler
▪ Is where the major work of working memory occurs because it is the control center of the working
memory system.
▪ It pulls information from long-term memory and coordinates the activity of the phonological
loop and visuospatial sketch pad by focusing on specific parts of a task and deciding how
to divide attention between different tasks.
▪ Controls suppression of irrelevant information
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
Its mission is not to store information but to coordinate how information is used by the phonological
loop and visuospatial sketch pad
CENTRAL EXECUTIVE
it determines how attention is focused on a specific task, how it is divided between two tasks,
and how it is switched between tasks
attention controller
working memory model is made by
Baddeley
The central executive is therefore related to _________, and it is essential in situations such as when a person is attempting to simultaneously drive and use a cell phone
executive attention
IN terms of central executive
____ means repeatedly performing the same action or thought even if it is not achieving the
desired goal
Perseveration
read only.
may taga basa ng directions habang nagddrive ka
▪ Your phonological loop is taking in the verbal directions.
▪ Your visuospatial sketch pad is helping you
visualize a map of the streets leading to the restaurant.
▪ Your central executive is coordinating and combining these two kinds of information.
noted
______
▪ Backup store that communicates with long-term and working memory components.
▪ Hold information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad.
EPISODIC BUFFER
____ is responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information.
Prefrontal cortex
T and F
Information is stored in short-term changes in neural networks
T
Stokes (2015)
true or false
not only that a number of areas are associated with working
memory, but that they communicate with each
other
t
Ericsson et al. (2015)
Activity-silent working memory:
▪ ________: information to be remembered causes neurons to fire
Activity state
Activity-silent working memory:
▪ ________: neuron firing stops, but connections between neurons are strengthened
Synaptic state
reminder. memorize all models / flowcharts
ok
