Epidemiology Flashcards
Incidence can be measured in a (___); prevalence can be measured in a (___) study.
Incidence can be measured in a cohort study; prevalence can be measured in a cross-sectional study.
As the mortality of a disease ↓, the prevalence of that disease (__)
Increases
The higher the disease prevalence, the (___) the PPV of the test for that disease.
The higher the disease prevalence, the higher the PPV of the test for that disease.
The lower the disease prevalence, the (___) the NPV of the test for that disease.
The lower the disease prevalence, the higher the NPV of the test for that disease.
What, generally, is the meaning of a likelihood ratio? What does a positive and negative LR mean?
LRs express the extent to which a given test result is likely in diseased people as opposed to people without disease:
■ ⊕ LR shows how much the odds (or probability) of disease are ↑ if the test result is ⊕.
■ ⊝ LR shows how much the odds (or probability) of disease are ↓ if the test result is ⊝.
What is the absolute risk of a disease?
the incidence of the disease
What is the attributable risk of a disease?
The difference in risk between the exposed and unexposed groups
(Attributable risk = incidence of disease in exposed − incidence in unexposed)
What is the equation for the number needed to treat?
Number need to treat (NNT) = 1/ attributable risk
What, generally, is relative risk? What is the equation for it?
Expresses how much more likely an exposed person is to get the disease in comparison to an unexposed person. This indicates the relative strength of the association between exposure and disease, making it useful when one is considering disease etiology.
Relative risk = (incidence in exposed) / (incidence in unexposed)
What is the equation for odds ratio?
Odds that a diseased person is exposed
/
Odds that a non diseased person is exposed
What type of studies is odds ratio used in?
Case-control studies
The (___) the disease incidence, the more closely it approximates RR.
The lower the disease incidence, the more closely it approximates RR.
What is a Kaplan-Meier curve?
Curve that describes the survival in a cohort of patients, with the probability of survival decreasing over time as patients die or drop out from the study.
What is the major statt that is derived from cross-sectional studies?
Prevalence
What is a cross-sectional study?
an observational study that assesses risk factors and outcomes at a single point in time. These studies aren’t able to prove temporal relationships, because they measure correlation, not causation.
What is a cohort study?
Following a group of exposed individuals, and assessing if they develop disease. Compared to a control group
What are case-control studies?
a series of cases are identified and a set of controls are sampled from the underlying population to estimate the frequency of exposure in the population at risk of the outcome. In such studies, a researcher compares the frequency of exposure to a possible risk factor between the case and control groups.
What is the difference between cohort, and case-control studies?
In cohort studies, the researcher determines whether the participants are exposed or unexposed and follows them over time for disease development.
In case-control studies, the researcher determines whether the participants have the disease or not and determines if they were exposed or unexposed.
What does the term “matching” refer to in case-control studies?
When controls are chosen to match a characteristic of a case
What is effect modification?
when a third variable disproportionately affects two groups. Effect modification shows a meaningful difference, whereas confounding does not.
What is length bias?
Occurs when screening tests detect a disproportionate number of slowly progressive diseases but miss rapidly progressive ones, leading to overestimation of the benefit of the screen. Example: A better prognosis for patients with cancer is celebrated following the implementation of a new screening program. However, this test disproportionately detects slow growing tumors, which generally tend to be less aggressive.
What is the equation for the power of a study?
Power = 1 – type II error (β)
Wider or narrower CI are most powerful?
Narrower
What is primary prevention?
Things to do to prevent increased incidence of disease
What is secondary prevention?
Screening for a disease to treat it before it gets worse
What is tertiary prevention?
measures the decreases Morbidity and mortality
What type of vaccine: MMR
Live
What type of vaccine: sabin polio
Live
What type of vaccine: yellow fever
Liver
What type of vaccine: nasal spray flu
Live
What type of vaccine: cholera
inactivated
What type of vaccine: HAV
Inactivated
What type of vaccine: Salk polio
Inactivated
What type of vaccine: Rabies
Inactivate
What type of vaccine: Injectable flu
Inactivated
What type of vaccine: Diptheria
Toxoid
What type of vaccine: tetanus
Toxoid
What type of vaccine: HBV
Subunit
What type of vaccine: Pertussis
Subunit
What type of vaccine: Strep pneumo
Subunit
What type of vaccine: HPV
Subunit
What type of vaccine: Meningococcus
Subunit
What type of vaccine: HiB
Conjugate
What type of vaccine: S. pneumoniae
Conjugate
What are the five stages of change?
Precontemplative Contemplative Preparation Action Maintenance
When does screening start, and how often: BP
19 years every 2 years
When does screening start, and how often: cholesterol screening for high risk pts
20 every
When does screening start, and how often: Pap
21 y.o every three years until 30, then every 5.
Continues until 65
When does screening start, and how often: chlamydia test
Yearly, 19 until age 24
When does screening start, and how often: Pelvic exams
40+ yearly
When is BG screening for DM indicated in all age groups?
If HTN present
When does screening start, and how often: Mammograms?
50, every 1-2 years
When does screening start, and how often: bone mineral density
65, once
When does screening start, and how often: FOBT
every year at 50
When does screening start, and how often: flexible sigmoidoscopy
Every 5 years starting at 50
When does screening start, and how often: cholesterol screening in lower risk
35 in men
45 in women
When does screening start, and how often: DRE
40-65
When does colon cancer screening stop?
75+
What are the top three causes of death in adults?
- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Unintentional injuries
true or false: tick borne diseases are reportable diseases
True