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A&P 2! > Endocrine system t2 > Flashcards

Endocrine system t2 Flashcards

1
Q

Leukocytes help defend the body against ___.

A

pathogens

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2
Q

do leukocytes contain hemoglobin? &why

A

no bc it’s not their job to carry respiratory gases

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3
Q

Do leuckocyts contain organelles and a nucleus?

A

yes

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4
Q

WBC are mostly found where

A

in the bodies tissues

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5
Q

Pathogen def

A

anything that cuases sickness and disease

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6
Q

how do wbc enter tissues

A

from blood vessels

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7
Q

Diapedesis:

A

squeezing through endothelial cells of blood vessels

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8
Q

Chemotaxis:

A
  • attraction of wbc to infections sight

- molecules released from damaged cells or pathogens

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9
Q

Chemo:

A

chemicals being released

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10
Q

Taxis: (+/-)

A 
positive = toward
negative = away
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11
Q

WBC can be classified as ___ or ___. (look wise)

A

granulocytes or agranulocytes

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12
Q

Granulocyte :

A

with visible granules seen with light microscope

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13
Q

Agranulocytes:

A

with smaller granules not visible with light microscope

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14
Q

WBC granulocytes include

A
  • neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
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15
Q

WBC agranulocyes include

A

lymphocytes monocytes

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16
Q

What are neutrophils in terms of numbers?

A

most numerous in blood

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17
Q

WBC are also called?

A

polymorphonuclear leukocytes

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18
Q

What do neutrophils do?

A

enter tissue spaces and phagocytize infectious pathogens

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19
Q

What happens with neutrophils when an infection occurs?

A

numbers rise dramatically in chronic bacterial infections

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20
Q

Eosinophils stain what color

A

reddish granules

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21
Q

What do eosinophils do?

A

phagocytize antigen-antiboy complexes or allerengs, active in cases of parasitic worms

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22
Q

Basophils stain what color

A

blue-violet granules

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23
Q

Basophils contain what two things that help when it comes to inflammation?

A

histamine and heparin

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24
Q

Basophils are ____. (number wise)

A

rare

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25
Q

Histamine release causes what three things?

A
  • causes increase in blood vessels diameter
  • increased capillary permeability
  • causes allergic symptoms
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26
Q

Allergic symptoms include (3). these symptoms help with what?

A
  • swollen nasal membranes, runny nose, watery eyes

- flushing the upper respiratory system to get rid of pathogens

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27
Q

Heparin release causes what and why?

A

inhibits blood clotting because heparin is a blood thinner

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28
Q

Lymphocytes reside where

A

in the lymphatic organs and structures (spleen and lymph nodes)

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29
Q

In terms of number how common are lymphocytes?

A

2nd most common WBC

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30
Q

What are the three categories of lymphocytes?

A
  • t-lymphocytes
  • b lymphocytes
  • NK cells
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31
Q

T-lymphocytes do what?

A

managing immune response in cell-mediated immunity (inside cells antigen)

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32
Q

B-lymphocytes do what?

A

becoming plasma cells and producing antibodies, roaming (outside antigen)

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33
Q

NK cells stands for what

A

(natural killer) Attacking abnormal and infected tissue cells

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34
Q

HIV destroys which type of lymphocyte?

A

t-lymphocytes

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35
Q

T-lymphocytes turn into an ____ making machine?

A

antibody

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36
Q

In terms of numbers how common are monocytes IN BLOOD?

A

not very common

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37
Q

Monocytes take up residence where?

A

in tissues

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38
Q

Monocytes fxn

A

phagocytize bacteria, viruses and debries

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39
Q

Monocytes exit cells and become what

A

macrophages

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40
Q

Leukopenia is what? What does it increase the risk of?

A

reduced number of WBC

- increases risk of developing infection

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41
Q

Leukopenia is a bi-product of what?

A

chemotherapy

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42
Q

Leukocytosis is what? what can cause it?

A

slightly elevenated leukocyte count

- may be caused by recent infection or stress

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43
Q

What is the order of WBC from most common to least common?

A

NEVER LET MONKEYS EAT BANANAS

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44
Q

Neutrophilia is what and associated with what

A

increase in neutrophils associated with bacterial infections, stress and tissue necrosis

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45
Q

Neutropenia is __? it may occur with what?

A

decreased neutrophil count

- may occur iwth anemia, drug or radiation therapy

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46
Q

Lymphocytosis is and increased number of what in response to what?

A

increased number o lymphocytes in response to viral infections, chronic bacterial infection, some leukemias, cancer of plasma cells

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47
Q

Lymphocytopenia? caused by what

A

decreased lymphocyte

- caused by HIV, other leukemias and pathogenic organism in the blood (sepsis)

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48
Q

Eosinophils increase in response to what

A

allergic reactions, parasites, some autoimmune diseases

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49
Q

Monocytes increase in response to

A

chronic inflammatory disorders or tuberculose, stress

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50
Q

Monocytes decrease in response to what

A

prolonged prednisone therapy

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51
Q

Acute leukemia:

A

short-term rapid progression

- death typically withing months in children and yound adults

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52
Q

Chronic leukemia

A
  • slower progression, longer termed

- in middle-aged and older individuals

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53
Q

Platelets are cellular what

A

fragments

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54
Q

Platelets play an important role in blood __

A

clotting

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55
Q

Platelets circulate how long

A

8-10 days

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56
Q

A little under half of the platelets are stored where

A

in the spleen

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57
Q

Thrombocytopenia:

A

abnormally small number of platelets in blood

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58
Q

Hemostasis is

A

the process of blood clotting

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59
Q

Blood clotting stops what during injury

A

stops blood flowing through injured blood vessel wall

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60
Q

What are the three OVERLAPPPING phases of hemostasis

A
  1. vascular spasm
  2. platelet plug formation
  3. coagulation phase
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61
Q

Vascular spasm is:

A

a sudden constriction of blood vessels

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62
Q

Vascular spasm limits what

A

blood to be able to leak from vesses

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63
Q

How long does vasuclar spasm last for ?

A

few to many minutes

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64
Q

With vascular spasm, greater vessel damage =

A

greater vascoconstriciton

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65
Q

A platelet plus froms from

A

platelets arriving at injury site

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66
Q

The platelet plug under normal conditions

A

endothelial wall smooth
• coated with prostacyclin
• activates pathway inhibiting platelet activation

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67
Q

Platelet plug when blood vessel damaged =

A

collagen fibers in vessel wall exposed
• platelets sticking here
• assisted by von Willebrand factor, plasma protein
• platelets developing long processes allowing for better adhesion
• closing off of injury due to platelet plug

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68
Q

The circulatory system circulates blood continulously to maintain ___?

A

homeostasis

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69
Q

____ disease is the leading cause of death

A

cardiovascular

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70
Q

Transportation of the blood through the body allows exchange of substances between

A

capillaries and cells

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71
Q

Perfusion:

A

delivery of blood per time per gram of tissue

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72
Q

Adequate perfusion is …

A

sufficient blood delivered to maintain health of body cells

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73
Q

Arteries carry blood in which direction? do they contain oxygen rich or poor blood?

A
  • carry blood away from the heart

* most (but not all) with oxygenated blood

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74
Q

Veins carry blood in which direction? do they contain oxygen rich or poor blood?

A
  • carry blood back to the heart

* most (but not all) with deoxygenated blood

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75
Q

Capillaries are the site for what? give two examples.

A
  • sites of exchange
  • between blood and air in lungs
  • between blood and body cells
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76
Q

The heart is composed of how many pumps?

A

two pumps, one left side one right side

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77
Q

The right side of the heart recieves which type of blood? where does it pump the blood to?

A
  • receives deoxygenated blood from body

* pumps it to the lungs

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78
Q

The left side of the heart recieves which type of blood? where does it pump the blood to?

A
  • receives oxygenated blood from lungs

* pumps it to the body

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79
Q

What is the main purpose for the atriums (blood wise)?

A
  • superior chambers

for receiving blood

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80
Q

What is the main purpose for the ventricles (blood wise)?

A 
-  inferior chambers
for pumping blood
away
• receive blood from
respective atria
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81
Q

The great vessels of the heart transport blood where?

A

• transport blood directly to and from chambers

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82
Q

What are the 4 great vessels of the heart?

A

• pulmonary trunk, aorta, superior and inferior vena cava

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83
Q

The pulmonary trunk splits into which arteries and what is the purpose of those two arteries?

A
  • splits into pulmonary arteries

* receives deoxygenated blood from right ventricle

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84
Q

The aorta recieves blood from where?

A

• receives oxygenated blood from left ventricle

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85
Q

The superior and inferior vena cava drain which type of blood into where?

A

drain deoxygenated blood into right atrium

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86
Q

The pulmonary veins drain which type of blood into where?

A

drain oxygenated blood into left atrium

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87
Q

The Atrioventricular valves seperate what?

A

• between atrium and ventricle of each side

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88
Q

Right AV valve, tricuspid is located where

A

– located between right atrium and right ventricle

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89
Q

Left AV valve, bicuspid, or mitral is located where

A

located between left atrium and left ventricle

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90
Q

The Semilunar valves boundary between what?

A

ventricle and arterial trunk

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91
Q

The Semilunar valves open to allow what

A

open to allow blood to flow through heart

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92
Q

The Semilunar valves close to what?

A

• close to prevent backflow

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93
Q

pulmonary semilunar valve is located where?

A

– located between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk

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94
Q

aortic semilunar valve is located where?

A

– located between left ventricle and the aorta

95
Q

Two circuits of the heart?

A

pulmonary and systemic circulations

96
Q

Pulmonary circulation

A
  • carries deoxygenated blood from right side of heart
  • goes through blood vessels to the lungs
  • pick up of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide
  • back through vessels to left side of heart
97
Q

Systemic circulation

A
  • moves oxygenated blood from left side of heart
  • moves through vessels to systemic cells
  • exchange of nutrients, gases, and wastes
  • returns blood in vessels to right side of heart
98
Q

Basic pattern of heart blood circulation

A

• right heart  lungs  left heart  systemic tissues  right heart

99
Q

Edema:

A

swelling

100
Q

Systemic edema may occur if which ventricle is impaired. This could mean blood is remaining where which caused fluid to enter where?

A
  • may occur if right ventricle impaired
  • more blood remaining in systemic circulation
  • additional fluid entering interstitial space
101
Q

Pulmonary edema may occur if which ventricle is impaired? which could cause blood to remain where? Swelling and fluid could accumulate where? this would cause what on breathing patterns?

A

may occur if left ventricle impaired
• more blood remaining in pulmonary circulation
• swelling and fluid accumulation in the lungs
• breathing difficulties and impaired gas exchange

102
Q

Which cavity is the heart located in?

A

mediastinum

103
Q

The right side is located more (ant/post), the left side is located more (ant/post)

A

anterior, posterior

104
Q

The pericardium __ the heart?

A

encloses the heart

105
Q

The pericardial sac is the ___ covering of the heart

A

outermost covering

106
Q

The pericardial sac is how many layers and what types of tissues do the two layers consist of?

A

double layered

  • fibrous layer, tough conn tissue
  • thin serous membrane
107
Q

The fibrous pericardium attaches which anatomical structures? and what does that function to do

A

attaches the diaphragm and base of aorta and pulmonary trunk

- restricts heart movement and prevents heart from overfiling

108
Q

The thin serous membrane of the heart is called what?

A

parietal layer of serous pericardium

109
Q

The visceral layer of serous pericardium is the second ____. it tightly adreres to what? both layers attach to what trunks?

A
  • second serous membrane
  • tightly adheres to heart
  • both attaching to arterial trunks
110
Q

The pericardial cavity is the space between what? what is it filled with and what does this fxn to do?

A

potential space between parietal and visceral layers

• serous fluid facilitating frictionless heart movement

111
Q

Pericarditis is the inflammation of what? what can be the cause of this?

A

– Inflammation of the pericardium

– Caused by viruses, bacteria, or fungi

112
Q

Pericarditis increases capillary permeability which causes what in the pericardial cavity? this may restrict what eventually resulting in the heart unable to pump called what _____?

A
  • fluid accumulation in pericardial cavity
  • becomes real space as it fills with fluid
  • may restrict heart’s movement and keep chambers from filling
  • results in cardiac tamponade, heart unable to pump
113
Q

With pericarditis, friction rub can be heard with which device as the pericardial layers rub?

A

• crackling sound heard with stethoscope as pericardial layers rub

114
Q

Ventricle layer walls are thicker than atrial walls why?

A

• because ventricles are the “pumping chambers”

115
Q

The left ventricle is how many times greater than the right ventricle? why is this?

A
  • three times thicker than right ventricle
  • must generate higher pressure
  • forces blood through systemic circulation
116
Q

The three heart WALL layers care called what?

A

epicardium, myocardium and endocardium

117
Q

Epicardium is made up mostly of what kind of tissue with an underlying layer of which mype of tissue

A

simple squamous epithelium

• underlying areolar connective tissue

118
Q

The myocardium is made up of which type of tissue? it’s the thickest of the three layers bc..? What about it may change with age?

A
  • middle heart layer
  • composed of cardiac muscle tissue
  • thickest of three layers
  • contraction generates force to pump blood
  • may change in thickness with age
119
Q

– Endocardium covers what? its composed of which type of tissue with and underlying layer of what?

A
  • covers internal surface of heart and external surface of valves
  • composed of simple squamous epithelium
  • underlying layer of areolar connective tissue
120
Q

The fossa ovalis was once called the ___ in a fetus? what does this function to do before birth?

A

fetal foramen ovale

– shunted blood from right to left atrium in fetal life

121
Q

The coronary sinus does what? where is the opening inside the heart?

A

drains blood from heart wall

• opening immediately inferior to fossa ovalis

122
Q

The valves of the heart ensure what?

A

ensures blood flow in on direction

123
Q

The heart valves consist of which type of tissue?

A

– Consist of endothelium-lined fibrous connective tissue flaps

124
Q

Describe blood movement when the AV valves are open

A

– When open, cusps extend into the ventricles

• allows blood to move from atrium to ventricle

125
Q

When the blood reaches the ventricle what causes the av valves to close and what prevents them from being pushed into the atrium when blood is in the ventricle?

A

With ventricular contraction, blood forced superiorly

-– Chordae tendinae secured by papillary muscles

126
Q

The semilunar valves open ventricles contract, why?

A
  • force of blood pushes valves open

* blood enters arterial trunks

127
Q

The semilunar valves close when ventricles relax, why?

A
  • pressure in ventricle less than pressure in arterial trunk
  • backward flow of blood toward ventricle
  • caught in cusps of valves, which close
  • prevents blood flow back into ventricle
128
Q

the cardiac muscle has a high demand for what?

A

nrg

129
Q

The cardiac muscle metabolism requires which three things?

A

extensive blood supply
• numerous mitochondria
• myoglobin and creatine kinase

130
Q

The cardiac muscle is able to use different types of fuel molecules like what 5 ions?

A

fatty acids, glucose, lactic acid, amino acids, and ketone bodies

131
Q

Cardiac muscle cells mostly on which type of metabolism (oxygen wise)? and why?

A

• makes muscle susceptible to failure in low-oxygen
• interference with blood flow to heart muscle
– can cause damage or death

132
Q

How does the ventricle contract?

A
  • action similar to wringing of mop

* begins at apex and compresses superiorly

133
Q

Right and left coronary arteries are the only branches of which major blood vessel?

A

• first and only branches of ascending aorta

134
Q

Which surface vessel is called the widow maker and why?

A

• anterior interventricular artery
– supplies anterior surface of both ventricles
– supplies most of interventricular septum
– “widowmaker”, high risk of fatality if occluded

135
Q

MAKE SURE TO LOOK AT SURFACE VESSEL SLIDES!

A

*

136
Q

Teenage Athletes and Sudden

Cardiac Death.

A

– Sudden death caused by undetected cardiovascular disease
– Most due to congenital heart defects and coronary artery anomalies
– Result of cardiomegaly, increased thickness of heart
– Symptoms of swelling, dizziness, arrhythmia, and shortness of breath
– Revealed by standard x-ray
– Confirmed with echocardiogram

137
Q

– Atherosclerosis

A

• coronary arteries narrowed and occluded

138
Q

Coronary spasm

A
  • sudden narrowing of vessels

* both can lead to angina or myocardial infarction

139
Q

Angina pectoris

A

pain sensation on left side of chest, left arm, or jaw
• generally results from strenuous activity
• referred pain
• medications inducing temporary vascular dilation

140
Q

– Myocardial infarction

A

heart attack
• sudden and complete occlusion of coronary artery
• region of myocardium deprived of oxygen
• possible tissue death
• sudden excruciating substernal chest pain radiating down left arm
• weakness, shortness of breath, nausea, anxiety, and sweating
• if large amount of tissue lost, person may die

141
Q

The hearts rhythm is dependent on what?

A

on rhythmic stiulation of cardiac muscle cells

142
Q

The automaticity of the heart begins with a stimulation by what?

A

by the pacemacker

143
Q

The sinoatrial node initiates what? bc of this initiation what is the SA node commonly called?

A

initates heartbeat, referred to as the pacemacker

144
Q

the AV bundle divides into left and right __?

A

bundles

145
Q

The purkinje fibers extend from what and go where ?

A

extend fro left and right bundles from apex of heart through walls of ventricles

146
Q

Does the parasympathetic system slow things down or make them go faster?

A

slows things down

147
Q

The Parasympathetic innervation come from where?

A

comes from cardioinhibitory center

148
Q

The right vagus in the parasympathetic innervation innervates which node?

A

SA node

149
Q

The left vagus in the parasympathetic innervation innervates which node?

A

AV node

150
Q

The parasympathetic innervation does what to the heart rate?

A

decreases the heart rate

151
Q

The innervation pathways include which to inervations?

A

the parasympathetic and sympathetic innervations

152
Q

The sympathetic innervation comes from where?

A

the cardioacceleratory center

153
Q

The sympathetic innervation does what to HR and force of contration

A

increases

154
Q

The sympathetic innervation does what to the dilation of vessels?

A

increases which supports increased blood flow to myocardium

155
Q

Heart rate = (___/___)

A

beats/minute

156
Q

Ectopic Pacemaker

A

– Pacemaker other than SA node
– Conduction system cells other than SA node
• also have ability to spontaneously depolarize
• depolarize at slower rates than SA node
– AV node the default pacemaker if SA node impaired
• AV node with inherent rhythm of 40 to 50 beats/min
• fast enough to sustain life
– Cardiac muscle with rate of 20 to 40 beats/min
• usually too slow to sustain life

157
Q

Cardiac Arrhythmia is:

A

Abnormality in the rate, regularity, or sequence of cardiac cycle

158
Q

– Atrial flutter

A

atria attempting to contract at 200-400 times per minute
• may persist for many years
• may degenerate into atrial fibrillation

159
Q

Atrial fibrillation

A
  • action potential more chaotic
  • irregular heart rate
  • may lead to serious disturbance in rhythm
160
Q

– Premature ventricular contractions

A

result from stress, stimulants, or sleep deprivation
• abnormal action potential within AV node or ventricles
• not detrimental unless they occur in large numbers

161
Q

– Ventricular fibrillation

A

life-threatening arrhythmia
• rapid, repetitious movement of ventricular muscle
• contractions not coordinated; heart unable to pump
• cardiac arrest
• shock applied to synchronize heart’s electrical activity

162
Q

What does ECG or EKG stand for?

A

electrocardiogram

163
Q

The EKG is what?

A

monitoring electrodes attached to skin at wrist, ankles and chest location
– Electrical signals collected and charted
– Provides assessment of electrical changes of heart
– Provides composite tracing of all cardiac action potentials
– Utilized during routine physical exam

164
Q

P wave

A

reflects electrical changes of atrial depolarization

• originates in SA node

165
Q

QRS complex

A

electrical changes associated with ventricular depolarization
• atria simultaneously repolarizing but masked by above

166
Q

T wave

A

electrical change associated with ventricular repolarization

167
Q

P-Q segment

A
  • associated with atrial plateau at sarcolemma

* cardiac muscle cells within atria contracting

168
Q

S-T segment

A
  • ventricular plateau

* cardiac muscle cells in ventricle contracting

169
Q

Waves associated with?

A

depolarization and repolarization

170
Q

Flat lines corresponds to what?

A

no electrical change

171
Q

Flat line between cycles? =

A

heart resting between beats

172
Q

P-R interval

A

period from beginning of P wave to beginning of QRS deflection
• atrial depolarization to beginning of ventricular depolarization
• time to transmit action potential through entire conduction system

173
Q

Q-T interval

A

time from beginning of QRS and end of T wave

• from ventricular depolarization to repolarization

174
Q

Heart Blocks =

A

– Involve impairment within heart’s conducting system

– May result in syncope (fainting), irregular heartbeats, and palpitations

175
Q

First-degree AV block

A
  • lengthened PR interval
  • action potential slowed between atria and ventricles
  • asymptomatic
176
Q

Second-degree block

A

exists along path between atria and ventricles

• failure of some action potentials to be conducted to ventricles

177
Q

Third-degree block

A
  • complete heart block
  • no action potentials from SA node received by ventricles
  • life-threatening
178
Q

After a third degree heart block what will take over to cause heartbeat?

A

AV Node

179
Q

Systole is what of heart chamber?

A

contraction

180
Q

Diastole is what of heart chamber

A

relaxation

181
Q

What happens with ventricular contraction? (4)

A

causes ventricular pressure to rise
• AV valves pushed and kept closed (preventing backflow)
• semilunar valves pushed open
• force blood from ventricle into arterial trunk

182
Q

What happens with ventricular relaxation? (3)

A 
• causes ventricular pressure to decrease
• closure of semilunar valves
– pressure no longer pushing them open
• AV valves open
– pressure no longer pushing them closed
183
Q

End diastolic volume (EDV) is what & when does this happen?

A

maximum blood volume in ventricle happens during atrial systole

184
Q

Isometric contration happens when?

A

early ventricular systole

185
Q

Four normal heart sounds:

A

two familiar sounds, “lubb-dupp”, S1 and S2
– S1, closing of AV valves
– S2, closing of semilunar valves
• two minor sounds, S3 and S4
• provide clinically important information about heart and valves

186
Q

Heart murmur

A

• abnormal heart sound
• result of turbulence of blood passing through heart
• some medically important, some not
• two types:
– valvular insufficiency and valvular stenosis

187
Q

Valvular insufficiency

A

cardiac valves leaking because cusps not closing tightly
• blood regurgitating back through valve
• may get heart enlargement

188
Q

Valvular stenosis

A
  • valve cusps scarred and cannot open completely
  • presents resistance to blood flow
  • reduces chamber output
  • chamber may enlarge and dilate
189
Q

Heart rate (HR) =

A

number of beats per minute

190
Q

Stroke volume (SV) =

A

volume of blood ejected during one beat

191
Q

Formula for cardiac output?

A

HR x SV = CO

192
Q

Total blood volume =

A

total blood volume pumped through circulation every minute

193
Q

Smaller heart =

A

Smaller stroke volume

194
Q

The resting heart rate is higher to maintain normal resting cardiac output which is why women’s heart rate is ___ compared to men’s? and infants have which type of heart rate?

A

women’s HR is typically faster than emn’s, infants have higher heart rate

195
Q

Larger heart larger =

A

learger stroke volume

196
Q

Athletes hearts are ___ and ____?

A

larger and stronger

197
Q

Athletes cardiac muscle cells are ___?

A

hypertrophied

198
Q

Larger stroke volume =

A

lower heart rate to maintain Cardiac output

199
Q

Athletes with bradycardia is called?

A

excersise induces bradycadia

200
Q

Cardiac reserve is an ____ in cardiac output above rest level?

A

increase

201
Q

Formula for cardiac reserve

A

difference C.O. at rest and max C.O body is capable f

202
Q

Cardiac reserve measure of level of exercise an individual can pursue. How is it with healthy, non-athlete, in an athlete and with a weakened heart?

A

increased four-fold in healthy, nonathlete
• increased up to seven-fold in athlete
• with weakened heart, may have little reserve and exercise limitation

203
Q

Positive chronotropic agents do what? list 4 examples

A 
increase HR
– Thyroid hormone
– Caffeine
– Nicotine
– Cocaine
• can lead to fast and erratic heart beat, possibly fatal
204
Q

Negative chronotropic agents do what?

A

Parasympathetic innervation
– Beta-blocker drugs
• interfere norepinephrine and epinephrine binding to beta receptors
• used to treat high blood pressure

205
Q

What are the major variable incluencing storke volume?

A

venous return and afterload

206
Q

Afterload is ? ex?

A

resistance in arteries to ejection of blood by ventricles

  • pressure that may be exceeded before blood ejected
  • ex: atherosclerosis
207
Q

Chronotropic agents do what to heart rate?

A

– Increases or decreases, dependent on chronotropic agents
• stimulate SA node to change its firing rate
• stimulate AV node to alter amount of delay

208
Q

Variables That Influence Cardiac Output, Stroke volume ?

A

– Venous return altering stretch of heart

– Afterload decreasing stroke volume

209
Q

Variables That Influence Cardiac Output Cardiac output

A

Increases when both stroke volume and heart rate increase

– Decreases when both stroke volume and heart rate decrease

210
Q

Bradycardia:

A

persistently low resting heart rate in adults
• below 60 beats/minute
• normal change in athletes
• abnormally due to:
– hypothyroidism, electrolyte imbalance, and congestive heart failure

211
Q

Tachycardia

A
  • persistently high resting heart rate
  • over 100 beats/minute
  • caused by heart disease, fever, and anxiety
212
Q

Hypertension (blood pressure too high) can do what ot blood vessels?

A

can damage blood vessels and lead to cardivascular disease

213
Q

Hypotension (blood pressure too low) causes hat two things

A

body deprived of nutrients

• may cause death if severe

214
Q

Three tunics of vessels? these do what?

A
  • tunica intima, tunica media, tunica externa

* exchange substances between blood and tissues

215
Q

Tunic intima is what type of tissue? (2)

A

simple squamous epithelium , subendothelial layer of areolar connective tissue

216
Q

Tunic media is circularly arranged layers of what type of tissue?what does this help with?

A 
circularly arranged layers of smooth muscle cells with elastic fibers
• contraction causing vasoconstriction
– narrowing of vessel lumen
• relaxation causing vasodilation
– widening of vessel lumen
217
Q

Are vessels considered organs?

A

yes, 2 or more vessels working together to provide common fxn

218
Q

Tunica externa is mae up of which 2 types of tissues?

A

areolar conn tissue iwth elastic and collagen fibers

219
Q

Elastic fibers in externa help with what? what abou the collagen fibers?

A

elastic fibers help with resilance and collagen fibers help with strength

220
Q

Tunica externa contains a ___ for it’s own circulation of blood?

A

vasa vasorum

221
Q

Veins differ in vessels in which ways?

A
  • have thicker tunica externa and larger lumen
  • less elastic and collagen fibers
  • wall collapsed if no blood in it
222
Q

Capillaries differ in which ways?

A
  • contain only tunica intima
  • composed of endothelium and basement membrane
  • lack subendothelial layer
  • allow for rapid gas and nutrient exchange
223
Q

Ficks law of diffusion direct correlaiton (top)

A

strength of concentration gradient, temp time

224
Q

Ficks law of diffusion indirect correlation (bottom)

A

molecular weight and distance

225
Q

Three types of arteries include?

A

elastic arteries, muscular arteries, arterioles

226
Q

elastic arteries

A

– Largest arteries with diameters from 2.5 to 1 cm
– Conduct blood from heart to smaller muscular arteries
– Have large proportion of elastic fibers
– Allow artery to stretch and recoil
• helps propel blood through arteries during diastole

227
Q

muscular arteries

A

– Medium arteries with diameters from 1 cm to 3 mm
– Distribute blood to specific body regions
– Have greater amounts of muscle, less elastic tissue
• better able to vasoconstrict and vasodilate
• less able to stretch

228
Q

arterioles

A

• Smooth muscle usually somewhat constricted
• called vasomotor tone
• regulated by vasomotor center in brainstem
– Regulate systemic blood pressure and blood flow

229
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

– Progressive disease of elastic and muscular arteries
– Presence of atheroma (atheromatous plaque)
• thickening of tunica intima
• narrowing of arterial lumen
– May be due to response to injury to endothelium
• by infection, trauma, hypertension
• results in inflammation reaction, atheroma formation
• with atheroma enlargement lumen narrower
• unaware of plaques until restrict blood flow to region
Increased cholesterol in the blood, hypercholesterolemia
• makes prone to disease
– Males more affected than females
– Smoking and hypertension
• increase vascular injury and overall risk
– Treatment
• angioplasty to expand narrowed region of artery
• coronary bypass surgery

230
Q

Aneurysm

A

– Part of arterial wall thins and balloons out
– Wall more prone to rupture
• can cause massive bleeding and death
– Elastic and muscular arteries
• with age less able to withstand forces from pulsating blood
– Risk increasing with age
– Most common in aorta or arteries at the base of the brain

231
Q

3 types of capilaries

A

Continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoid type capillaries

232
Q

Continuous

A
  • most common type
  • endothelial cells forming continuous lining around lumen
  • rests on complete basement membrane
  • cells secured by tight junctions but don’t form complete seal
  • found in muscle, skin, lungs, central nervous system
233
Q

fenestrated

A

• endothelial cells forming continuous lining
• rests on complete basement membrane
• small regions of endothelial cells extremely thin
– fenestrations
– allow movement of smaller plasma proteins
– too small for formed elements

234
Q

sinusoid

A

• endothelial cells forming incomplete lining with gaps
• basement membrane incomplete or absent
• openings allowing for transport of large substances
– e.g., formed elements, large plasma proteins,
• found in
– bone marrow for entrance of formed elements
– liver and spleen removing aged erythrocytes
– some endocrine gland

A&P 2! (6 decks)

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