AP 2 T3 Flashcards
1
Q
What are capillary beds?
A
groups of capillaries fxning to gether
2
Q
Capillary beds are fed by what?
A
metarteriole
3
Q
Metarteriole is what?
A
athe vessel branch of arteriole
4
Q
The proximal part of the metarteriole is encircled bywhat?
A
scattered smooth muscle cells
5
Q
The distal part of the metarteriole is called the ___. What type of smooth muscle does it have?
A
throughfare channel with no smooth muscle ells
6
Q
The metarteriole connects to what ____. what is the fxn of this?
A
postcapillary venule it’s the draining bed
7
Q
The precapillary sphincter is a ___ muscle ring at _____.
A
smooth muscle ring at true capillary origin
8
Q
The precapilary sphincter relaxation leads to what type of blood flow?
A
permits blood to flow into the true capillaries
9
Q
the precapillary sphincter contraction leads to what?
A
caused blood to bypass capillary bed
10
Q
The cycle of contraction and relaxing of the precapillary sphincter is called what?
A
vasomotion
11
Q
At any time how much of the capillary beds is open?
A
one qarter
12
Q
What percent of total blood volume is in the capillaries at given moment?
A
5%
13
Q
Perfusion:
A
the amount of blood entering capillaries per unit time per gram of tissue
14
Q
Venules are what type of veins? what is the diameter of them?
A
the smallest veins from 8 to 100 micrometers diamer
15
Q
Venules are companion vessels with ___?
A
arterioles
16
Q
The smallest venules are what? what do these do?
A
smallest, postcapillary venules..they drain capillaries
17
Q
Venules merge to form what?
A
veins
18
Q
Small and medium sized veins companion with what?
A
muscular arteries
19
Q
The largest veins travel with what?
A
elastic arteries
20
Q
Most veins have numerous ___. what is the fxn of these?
A
valves to prevent blood from pooling in the lungs
21
Q
Valves in the veins are from from what?
A
tunic intima, elastic and collagen fibers
22
Q
What is the “simple” pathway of blood vessel arrangement
A
One major artery delivering blood to organ or region
• branches into smaller arteries to become arterioles
• each arteriole feeding into single capillary bed
• drained by venule
• merge to one major vein
23
Q
How many alternative pathways of blood vessels are there?
A
multiple alternative pathways possible
24
Q
Arterial anastamosis
A
two or more arteries converging to supply same region
• e.g., superior and inferior epigastric arteries supplying abdominal
wall
25
Alternative pathway Portal system is blood flowing through how many capillary beds?
two
26
The beds in portal system are separated by what?
a portal vein
27
Oxygen hormones and nutrients diffuse how and where does it move to?
- move from higher concentration in blood
| - move into interstitial fluid and tissue cells
28
Carbon dioxide and waste products diffuse how and where?
- diffuse from higher concentration in tissue to blood
29
Bulk flow :
movement of large amounts of fluids and dissolved substances
30
How does bulk flow move (direction wise etc)?
in one direction down a pressure gradient
31
The direction of movement of bulk flow is dependent n what?
net pressure of opposing forces
- hydrostatic pressure and colloid pressure
- direciton of net flow calculated through these valves
32
What are the two bulk flow types?
filtration and reabsorption
33
Bulk flow: Filtration is the movemtn of fluid where? what can flow? what is blocked and where does filtration occur in the capillary?
* movement of fluid out of blood through openings in capillaries
* fluid and small solutes flowing easily
* larger solutes blocked
* occurs on arterial end of capillary
34
Bulk flow: reabsoprtion is movement of fluid where? where does this occur?
* movement of fluid back into blood
| * on venous end
35
Hydrostatic pressure is what?
Physical force exerted by fluid on a structure
36
Blood hydrostatic pressure is? what does it promote?
force exerted per unit area by blood on wall
| • promotes filtration from capillary
37
Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure is what?
force of interstitial fluid on external blood vessel
| • close to 0 in most tissues
38
Colloid osmtotic pressure is what?
– Pull of water into tissue by tissue’s protein concentration (colloid)
39
Blood colloid pressure is what? what does it promote?
draws fluid into blood due to blood proteins
| • promotes reabsorption, opposing hydrostatic pressure
40
Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure is what? is it low or high...and why?
* force drawing fluid into interstitial fluid
| * few proteins present, so relatively low (0 to 5 mm Hg)
41
Net filtration pressure calculation:
- Net hydrostatic pressure
• difference between blood and interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressures
– Net colloid osmotic pressure
• difference between blood and interstitial fluid osmotic pressures
42
The lymphatic system picks up what, where? What percent of fluid is not reabsorbed by the capillary?
– Picks up excess fluid not reabsorbed at venous capillary end
• 15% of fluid not reabsorbed by capillary
43
The lymphatic system filters what and returns it where?
– Filters fluid and returns it to venous circulation
44
If lymph vessels were nonfunctional, what
would happen to the amount of interstitial
fluid around the capillary bed?
This fluid would increase, potentially leading to
| edema.
45
The degree of vasculariztion determines what?
– Determines potential ability of blood delivery
46
Brain, skeletal muscle, heart, liver is highly vascularized or little?
highly
47
Tendons and Ligaments are highly vascularized or little?
little
48
Angiogenesis:
formation of new blood vessels in tissues
49
Angiogenesis helps provide what?
adequate perfusion through anatomic changes
50
Angiogenesis occurs in what time frame?
Occurs over several weeks to months
51
Angiogenesis is stimulated when? (3 things)
• skeletal muscle in response to aerobic training
• adipose tissue with weight gain
• occlusion of coronary vessels, providing alternative routes for
blood
52
Regression:
Return to previous state of blood vessels (before angiogenesis)
53
Regression may occur in what? (two things)
* some skeletal muscle vessels after individual becomes sedentary
* adipose tissue when tissue decreased
54
Autoregulation and changing metabolic activity:
Process by which tissue controls local blood flow
55
Stimulus of inadequate perfusion due to increased metabolic activity like what (3) things?
oxygen and nutrient levels declining
• increase in carbon dioxide, lactic acid, H+, K+
• act as local vasodilators
56
Autoregulation and changing metabolic activity is a negative feedback loop which means what?
• as perfusion increases, vessels constricting in response
57
Short-term regulation due to damaged tissue or as
| part of the body’s defense system includes inflammation which is what?
• vasoactive chemical released from damaged tissue, leukocytes,
platelets
58
Chemicals involved with inflammation are histamine and bradykinin which does what (3) things?
release in response to trauma, allergy, infection, exercise
– cause vasodilation by directly stimulating arterioles
– may also stimulate release of nitric oxide, vasodilator
59
Total blood flow:
– Amount of blood transported through vasculature per time
60
Total blood flow is equal to what? it may increase significantly with what? what happens if it does increase or decrease?
May increase significantly with exercise
– If increases, more blood available to tissues
– If decreases, less available to tissues
61
Blood pressure:
Force per unit area of blood against vessel wall
62
Blood pressure is the driving force for what?
propelling blood through the vessels
63
Change in blood presure from one end to the other is what?
blood pressure gradient
64
Arterial blood pressure is blood flow pulsatile because of what?
ventricles contracting and relaxing
65
Arterial blood pressure involves what two pressures?
systolic pressure and diastolic pressure
66
Systolic pressure (3)
pressure in arteries during ventricular systole
• highest pressure generated in arteries
• artery maximally stretched
67
Diastolic pressure (3)
pressure in arteries during ventricular diastole
• lowest pressure generated in arteries
• artery maximally recoiled
68
Blood pressure readings is given how? what is the avg blood pressure for an avg adult?
* given as ratio of systolic to diastolic
| * average adult, about 120/80 mm Hg
69
Pulse pressure is? how is it calculated?
* additional pressure on arteries when heart contracting
* difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure
* e.g., for blood pressure 120/80, pulse pressure 40
70
Pulse pressure measures what? where is it the highest?
* measures elasticity and recoil of arteries
| * highest in arteries closest to the heart
71
Pulse pressure may change with what 4 things?
may change temporarily with exercise
• with age and disease, arteries losing elasticity
– makes more difficult for heart to pump blood
– may see changes in pulse pressure
72
Pulse:
– throbbing sensations associated with pulse pressure
73
Mean arterial pressure (MAP):
average of blood pressure forces on arteries
74
Formula.....MAP =
diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure
E.g., with blood pressure 120/80
MAP = 80 + 40/3 = 93
75
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) provides what?
index of perfusion
76
When blood is in capillary pulse pressure = what?
0
77
Capillary blood pressure needs to be high enough for what?
exchange of substances
78
Capillary blood pressure needs to be low enugh for what?
to not damage vessels
79
Capillary blood pressure at arteriel end is about what? and venous end?
40 mmHg, venous end = 20 mm Hg
80
Capillary blood pressure accounts for what?
Accounts for filtration and reabsorption at respective ends
81
Venous return:
movement of blood from capillaries back to heart
82
Venous blood pressure in venules? what about when it reaches right atrium?
20 mm Hg , almost 0 when reaches right atrium
83
Venous blood pressure has a small gradient which means what?
may be insufficient to move blood when standing
84
How does blood move from feet upward?
Skeletal muscle pump
85
Skeletal muscle pump: (5)
assists movement of blood within the limbs
• with muscle contraction, veins squeezed to help propel blood
• valves helping prevent backflow
• blood pumped more quickly back to heart during exercise
• with prolonged inactivity, blood pooling in the leg veins
86
Respiratory pump
• assists movement of blood within thoracic cavity
• diaphragm contracts and flattens with inspiration
- blood propelled from abdominal cavity to thoracic cavity
87
Respiratory pump abdominal cavity:
decreasing in volume and increasing in pressure
88
Respiratory pump thoracic cavity:
increasing in volume and decreasing in pressure
89
– Respiratory pump (continued)
with expiration diaphragm relaxing
• decreased intra-abdominal pressure
• helps blood move from vessels back into heart
• helps blood move from limbs into abdominal vessels
• effect increased with increased breathing rate
90
Blood pressure gradient in the systemic circulation (arteries, vena cava = gradient)
– Mean blood pressure in arteries, 93 mm Hg
– Blood pressure in vena cava 0
– Blood pressure gradient 93 mm Hg
91
The blood pressure gradient is the driving force to move what through what?
– Driving force to move blood through vasculature
• increasing gradient increasing total blood flow
• decreasing gradient decreasing total blood flow
92
Blood pressure gradient is increased by what?
increases cardiac output
93
What is the pulse pressure and mean
arterial pressure for a reading of 155/95 mm
Hg?
Pulse pressure = 60 mmHg
MAP = diastolic + 1/3 pulse pressure
= 95 + 1/3 (60) = 115
94
Clinical View: Detecting a Pulse Point
– Pulse, throbbing of arterial wall
– Allows determination of heartbeat
– More forceful pulse associated with higher pressure
– Absence indicates flow to body part lacking
– Pulse points
• where artery may be compressed against solid structure
• e.g., radial, common carotid, femoral, dorsalis pedis, and others
95
Clinical View: Cerebral Edema
– Excess interstitial fluid in the brain
– Can occur if MAP greater than 160 mm Hg
– Increases filtration in brain capillaries
– No lymph vessels here
– Accumulation of excess fluid
96
Clinical View: Deep Vein Thrombosis
– Clot (thrombosis) in a vein
– Most common site the calf
– Heart disease, immobility, risk factors
– Fever, tenderness, and redness
– Pain and swelling in areas drained, rapid heartbeat
– Pulmonary embolus, most serious complication
• clot breaking free and lodging in pulmonary artery
• can cause respiratory failure and death
97
Clinical View: Varicose Veins
– Dilated and tortuous
– Nonfunctional valves causing blood pooling
– Most common in superficial veins of lower limbs
– Result of genetics, aging, extended standing, obesity, pregnancy
– In anorectal region, hemorrhoids
• due to increased abdominal pressure
98
Clinical View: Circulatory Shock
– Insufficient blood flow to perfuse tissues
– Can be due to impaired heart
– Can be due to low venous return
• from hemorrhage, dehydration
• obstructed vein
• venous pooling from extensive vasodilation from bacterial toxins
• brainstem trauma causing loss of vasomotor tone
• others
99
Resistance
Amount of friction blood experiences traveling through vessels
100
Resistance is due to what?
– Due to contact between blood and vessel wall
101
Resistance influences and opposes what?
– Influences and opposes total blood flow
102
Peripheral resistance:
• resistance of blood in blood vessels (as opposed to heart)
103
Resistance is affected by what 3 things?
– Affected by viscosity, vessel length, lumen size
104
• Vessel length
– Resistance increasing with length
• greater friction experienced by fluid
• shorter vessels with less resistance than longer of same diameter
• normally vessels maintaining same length
– may be increased during weight gain due to angiogenesis
105
Vessel radius
– The major way resistance regulated
– Flow fastest in the center of lumen
• encounters resistance from nearby vessel wall
– Different flow rate within vessel
• laminar flow
– As diameter increases, less blood near edges
• overall blood flow increases
106
Small changes in vessel radius yields large changes in ___.
resistance
107
Blood pressure needs to be high enough to maintian ____. if too high what happens?
to maintain tissue perfusion
| - too high damages vesels
108
Blood pressure is dependent on what 3 things?
cardiac output, reistance and blood volume
109
Variables with blood pressure are regulated through what two systems?
endocrine and nervous
110
Short term regulation of blood pressure occurs through what? it involves what? how does it adjust blood pressure? it altersw hat two things?
autonomic reflexes
involve nuclei within medulla oblongata
• adjust blood pressure quickly
• e.g., arising from sitting to standing position
• alter cardiac output, resistance, or both
111
Baroreceptors are what?
specializes sensory nerve endings
112
Baroreceptors responds to what? firing rate changes when what happens?
stretch in blood vessel walls
| - firing rate changes when stretch in blood vessels changes
113
Aortic arch barorecepotrs is located where?
• located in tunica externa of aortic arch
114
Aortic arch barorecepotrs transmits nerve signals to what? through what?
• transmit nerve signals to cardiovascular center through vagus
115
Aortic arch barorecepotrs are important in regulating what?
• important in regulating systemic blood pressure
116
Carotid sinuses are ___ located where?
baroreceptors located in tunica external of internal carotid arteries
117
Carotid sinuses transmit nerve signals back to the what?
• transmit nerve signals back to the cardiovascular center
118
Carotid sinuses monitors blod pressure where in the body?
• monitor blood pressure in head, neck, brain
119
Carotid sinuses are more sensitive to ___ than ______.
• more sensitive to blood pressure changes than aortic arch receptors
120
Autonomic reflexes are activated in response to what?
changes in stretch
121
Barorecptor reflexes are initiated by ___ or ___ in blood pressure?
decrease or increase in blood pressure
122
With decreased blood pressure what happens to autonomic reflexes?
• reflexes causing increased cardiac output, increased resistance, larger circulating blood volume
123
With increased blood pressure what happens to autonomic reflexes?
• reflexes causing decreased cardiac output, decreased resistance,
smaller circulating blood volume
124
Autonomic reflexes responds best to what two things?
– Respond best to sudden, short-term changes in blood pressure
125
Stimulators of chemoreceptors are what ?
high carbon dioxide, low pH, very low oxyen
126
Antidiuretic hormone increases what which helps maintain what?
• increases absorption of water in the kidney
– helps maintain blood volume and pressure
• stimulates thirst center to increase fluid intake
• causes vasoconstriction with extreme low blood volume
– increased peripheral resistance and blood pressure
– why hormone sometimes termed vasopressin
127
– Hypertension
chronically elevated blood pressure
• systolic pressure > 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic > 90 mm Hg
• may damage blood vessel walls, making atherosclerosis more likely
• may thicken arteriole walls, arteriolosclerosis
• major cause of heart failure
128
Hypotension
* chronically low blood pressure
* symptoms of fatigue, dizziness, fainting
* systolic pressure
129
– Orthostatic hypotension
drop in blood pressure after sudden standing
• dizziness, light-headedness, fainting
• blood pressure regulation not occurring quickly enough
130
What device is used to Measure Blood Pressure
sphygmomanometer
131
sphygmomanometer
cuff wrapped around arm
• stethoscope distal to compressed artery
• cuff inflated until brachial artery completely compressed
• pressure in cuff decreased as air released
132
Systolic pressure, top number is pressure in what?
pressure in arteries when heart contracts
| • sound heard when pressure sufficient to overcome cuff pressure
133
– Diastolic pressure, bottom number is the pressure in what?
pressure in arteries when heart relaxes
• sounds no longer heard
• flow now smooth again because cuff not compressing artery
134
• During exercise blood flow is ___ due to ___ and ___ heartbeat. Also due to blood removal from _______. Ensures metabolically active tissues recieving ____ blood.
– Increase in total blood flow
– Due to faster and stronger heartbeat
– Also due to blood removal from venous reservoirs
– Ensures metabolically active tissues receiving adequate blood
135
During exercise there is an ___ flow to coronary vessels that helps with what?
Increased flow to coronary vessels
| • helps ensure sufficient oxygen reaches cardiac muscle
136
During exercise skeletal muscle blood flow increasing bc it's needed to meet __________.
high metabolic demands
137
During exercise blood flow increased to skin why?
to dissipate heat
138
During exercise blood flow is less to which areas?
• to abdominal organs, kidneys, less metabolically active structures
139
Hepatic portal system venous return from abdomen and the hepatic portal system
* blood from digestive organs not returned directly to vena cava
* transported via system into the liver
* then drains to inferior vena cava
* digested nutrients processed by the liver
* harmful agents absorbed in blood processed by liver
* receives products of erythrocyte destruction from spleen
140
Foramen ovale
pressure greater on left side of heart
• two flaps of interatrial septum closing off foramen
• remnant, thin depression in septum wall, fossa ovalis
141
Ductus arteriosus
* closes within 10 to 15 hours of birth
| * becomes fibrous structure, ligamentum arteriosum
142
Clinical View: Patent Ductus Arteriosus
– When ductus fails to close after birth
– When patent
• blood flowing from aorta able to enter pulmonary system
• high blood pressure in pulmonary circulation
• mixing of deoxygenated blood with oxygenated blood
– May be treated with prostaglandin-inhibiting medication or surgery
143
The lymphatic systems include what structures?
Tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic vessels
144
Enlargement in the lymphatic organs can indicate what?
sign that organs actively engaged in defending the body
145
What is the main job of the lymphatic system?
excess fluid to blood to maintain fluid balance
146
Lymph:
fluid transported within the lymph vessels
147
What percentage of fluid is not reabsobed into capillaries? what is that in liters?
15% of fluid entering interstitial spaces not reabsorbed into capillaries
• about 3 liters daily
148
Why does lymph move into lymphatic capillaries?
– Moves passively into lymphatic capillaries due to pressure gradient
149
Lymph is only termed lymph when its where?
Termed lymph once inside lymph vessels
150
What are some components of lymph?
* water, dissolved solutes, and small amount of protein
| * sometimes cell debris, pathogens, or metastasized cancer cells
151
Lymphatic capillaries absorb what?
Closed-ended vessels that absorb interstitial fluid
152
Lymphatic capillaries are absent with what type of tissues?
Absent within avascular tissues
| • e.g., epithelia
153
Lymphatic capillaries are larger in diameter than what type of capillary?
– Larger in diameter than blood capillaries
154
Lymphatic capillaries lack what?
Lack basement membrane
155
Lymphatic capillaries have ___ to allow fluid entrance without exit.
• one way flaps to allow fluid entrance without exit
156
Anchoring filaments in lymphatic capillaries do what?
• help hold endothelial cells to nearby structures
157
Lacteals in lymphatic capillaries are where? they function to do what?
* lymphatic capillaries within the GI tract
| * allow for absorption of lipid-soluble substances from GI tract
158
Movement of Lymph into Lymphatic Capillaries
– Driving force moving fluid into lymphatic capillaries
• increase in hydrostatic pressure within interstitial space
• rises as additional fluid is filtered from blood capillaries
• increase in pressure “pushes” interstitial fluid into lymphatic capillary
lumen
• the higher the pressure, the greater the fluid entering lymphatic capillary
– Pressure of lymph forcing endothelial cells of vessel to close
• lymph “trapped” within lymphatic vessel
– Lymph transported through network of increasing larger vessels
• lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic trunks, and lymphatic
ducts
159
Clinical View: Metastasis
– Wandering cancerous cells establishing secondary tumors
• develop in other locations in the body (metastasis)
• e.g., breast cancer may metastasize to the lung
– Cancerous cells break free from primary tumor
• transported in the lymph
160
The lymphatic system is without a pump so what structures and mechanisms does it rely on to move lymph through vessels?
• contraction of nearby skeletal muscles in limbs
• contraction of respiratory pump in the torso
• pulsatile movement of blood in nearby arteries
• rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in larger lymph vessel walls
- some connecting directly to lymph nodes
161
Lymph nodes do what?
Filter lymph and remove unwanted substances
162
Lymph nodes are located where within the body?
Located both deep and superficially within the body
163
Lymph nodes typically occur how?
occur in clusters receiving lymph from body regions
164
Axillary lymph nodes in armpits receive lymph from where?
receive lymph from breast, axilla, and upper limb
165
Inguinal lymph nodes in groin receive lymph from where?
receive lymph from lower limb and pelvis
166
Afferent lymphatic vessels do what?
bring lymph into lobe
167
Efferent lymph vessels do what?
• drains node
168
Efferent lymph vessels originates at involuted portion on node called the what?
hilum
169
The capsule of the lymph node extends into the node called the what? What does this do?
* sends internal extension into it, trabeculae
| * subdivide node into compartments
170
Lymph Flow Through Lymph Nodes (steps)
Enters node through afferent lymphatic vessels
– Makes its way through lymph node sinuses
– Lymph continuously monitored for presence of foreign material
– Macrophages
• remove foreign debris from the lymph
– Lymph exiting lymph node through efferent vessel
– May enter nearby lymph node in cluster
171
Swollen lymph nodes become tender why? its a sign of what?
become tender with infection
• sign that lymphocytes proliferating and fighting infection
• can palpate swollen superficial lymph nodes
172
Clinical View: Lymphoma
– Malignant neoplasm from lymphatic structures
– Nontender, enlarged lymph node
• possible night sweats, fever, and weight loss
173
Hodgkin lymphoma
* affects young adults and people over 60
| * if caught early, cured by excision, radiation, and chemotherapy
174
– Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
* more common
| * some kinds aggressive, others slow growing
175
Whats the largest lymphatic organ?
the spleen
176
The spleen always contains a ____ where blood vessels and nerves enter.
hilum
177
The spleen is supplied by what?
Splenic artery
178
The spleen is drained by what?
Splenic vein
179
White pulp in the spleen is what?
Clusters of T and B lymphocytes and macrophages
180
The white pulp contains what type of artery?
Central artery
181
The spleen fucntions to filter what?
blood
182
White pulp lymphatic cells function to do what?
monitor blood for foreign materials and bacteria
183
The spleen also forms blood cells during fetal development until what month?
5th month
184
Monitoring Blood as it Flows Through the Spleen (blood enters..then steps)
– Blood first entering through central artery (white pulp)
– Travels through sinusoids of red pulp
• is in contact with splenic cords of red pulp
• macrophages here phagocytize:
– bacteria and foreign debris
– old and defective erythrocytes and platelets
– Travels through venules and out splenic vein
185
Clinical View: Splenectomy
Surgical removal of the spleen
– May be performed due to:
• ruptured spleen from abdominal injury (most common)
• infection, cyst, or tumor
• lymphoma or other cancer
• blood disorders (e.g., sickle cell anemia)
– May be more prone to life-threatening infection
186
Clinical View: Tonsillitis and Tonsillectomy
Acute tonsillitis, inflammation and infection of the tonsils
– Palatine tonsils most commonly affected
• redden and enlarge
• may partially obstruct pharynx
– Fever, chills, sore throat, and difficulty swallowing
– May be infected by viruses or bacteria
– Persistent recurrent infections, chronic tonsillitis
• may require tonsillectomy, surgical removal of tonsils
187
The immune system protects us from what?
– Protects us from infectious agents and harmful substances
| • typically without our awareness
188
The function of the immune system is dependent on what?
on specific type of infectious agent
189
Infectious agents are organism that cause what?
damage or death to host organism
190
If an infectious agent causes harms it's termed what?
pathogenic
191
What are the five major categories of infectious agents?
* bacteria
* viruses
* fungi
* protozoans
* multicellular parasites
192
Bacteria is what type of celled organism, what size is it usually and what 3 shapes doe sit come in ?
```
– Single-celled prokaryotic organisms
– 1-2 micrometers, enclosed by cell wall
– Come in multiple shapes
• spherical (cocci)
• rodlike (bacilli)
• coiled (spirilla)
```
193
Some bacteria come with increased virulence which is what?
ability t cause serious illness
194
Why is virgulence increased
due to presence of external polysaccharide capsule
| -others releasing enzymes or toxins
195
Are viruses cells?
no
196
Do viruses have DNA or RNA?
composed OF DNA or RNA
197
Viruses are bigger or smaller than bacteria?
smaller
198
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites which means what?
must enter cell to reproduce
199
How do viruses reproduce? steps
infected cell directed to synthesize copies of DNA or RNA and
capsid
• viral particles formed within infected cells
• released from them to infect surrounding cells
• cell ultimately killed by virus or immune system
200
Fungi is what type of cell
eukaryotic
201
Funci has a cell wall ___ to plasma membrane?
external
202
Fungi releases proteolytic enzymes which induce what?
inflammation causing redness and swelling
203
Protozoans are which type of cell?
eukaryotic cells
204
Protozoans lack what?
cell wall
205
Protozoans are ____ and ____ prasites?
intracellular and extracellular parasites
206
What are two examples of diseases protozoans cuase?
malaria and trichomoniasis
207
Multicellular parasites are ___ organisms>
nonmicroscopic organism
208
Multicellulr parasites resisde in host from which they take what?
nourishment
209
Examples of mulicelluar parasites are what?
parasitic worms and tapeworms
210
Prions ar neither ___ or ____.
cells or viruses
211
Prions are what?
small fragments of infectious proteins
212
Prions cause diseases where?
in nervous tissue
213
Creutzfeldt-jakob disease is also called what? Its caused by what? it can be spread from what to what by what?
also called mad cow disease
- caused by prions
- can be spread from cows to humans by consuming infected meat
214
Leukocytes are found in what type of bone marrow?
red bone marrow
215
3 types of granulocytes:
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
216
Monocytes become what when what?
becomes macrophages when take up residence in tissue
217
Lymphocytes include:
b-lymphocytes, t-lymphocytes, NK cells
218
Innatue immunity protects against numerous __ ____.
different substances
219
Innate immunity comes later or born with it?
born with it
220
Innate immunity includes carriers of __ and ___ membranes. ___ cellular and ____ _____ defenses.
skin and muscosal membranes
| - nonspecific cellular and molecular internal defenses
221
Innate immunity does not require what?
exposure to previous foreign substances
222
How does innate immunity respont to harmful agents?
responds immediately to potentially harmful agents
223
immunity invovleswhich specific cells?
t lymphocytes and b-lymphocytes
224
Adaptive immunity responds to which types of foreign substances
responds to different foreign substances
225
Adaptive immunity wont respond to what?
bacteria cuasing strept throat
226
How long does adaptive immunity take to be effective?
takes several days to e effective
227
Innate immunity responds ____ to a ______ of harmful substances
Respond nonspecifically to wide range of harmful substances
228
What is our first line of defense in innate immunity?
• skin and mucosal membrane
229
What is our seond life of defense with innate immunity ? (4)
* internal processes of innate immunity
* activities of neutrophils, macrophages, NK cells
* chemicals such as interferon and complement
* physiological processes such as inflammation and fever
230
the physical barrier of skin is formed by what?
epidermis and dermis
231
Skin releases___ substances like what 4 things?
antimicrobial substances ---immunoglobulin A (IgA), lysozyme, sebum, defensins
232
Skin has a normal flora that helps prevent what?
• help prevent growth of pathogenic microorganisms
233
Mucosal memrane barriers produce what?
mucin
234
When musin is hydrated it forms what?
mucous
235
Most prevelant WBC in blood?
Neutrophil
236
FIrst cell to arrive during inflammatory response?
neutrophil
237
Macrophages reside where?
in tissues throughout the body
238
Macrophages arrive ___ and stay ___ than neutrophils
later and stay longer
239
Basophils and mast cells release ___ during inflammatory response?
granules
240
Basophils and mast cells contain Histamine that does what?
increases vasodilation and capillary permeability
241
Basophils and mast cells contain heparin which is an?
anticoagulant
242
Mast cells and basophils release ___ from the plasma membrane? it ___ during inflammation?
eicosanoids which increases during inflammation
243
NK cells destroy wide variety of what? give soem examples
destroy wide variety of unwanted cells
| - virus and bacteria-infected cells, tumor cells, cells of transplanted tissue
244
NK cells are formed in what and circulate where?
fromed in bone marrow and circulate in blood
245
NK cells accumulate where in the lymphatic tissues?
accumulate in secondary lymphatic structures
246
NK cells patrol body detecting what? what is this termed?
– Patrol the body detecting unhealthy cells
| • termed immune surveillance
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