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A&P 2! > AP 2 T3 > Flashcards

AP 2 T3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are capillary beds?

A

groups of capillaries fxning to gether

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2
Q

Capillary beds are fed by what?

A

metarteriole

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3
Q

Metarteriole is what?

A

athe vessel branch of arteriole

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4
Q

The proximal part of the metarteriole is encircled bywhat?

A

scattered smooth muscle cells

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5
Q

The distal part of the metarteriole is called the ___. What type of smooth muscle does it have?

A

throughfare channel with no smooth muscle ells

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6
Q

The metarteriole connects to what ____. what is the fxn of this?

A

postcapillary venule it’s the draining bed

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7
Q

The precapillary sphincter is a ___ muscle ring at _____.

A

smooth muscle ring at true capillary origin

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8
Q

The precapilary sphincter relaxation leads to what type of blood flow?

A

permits blood to flow into the true capillaries

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9
Q

the precapillary sphincter contraction leads to what?

A

caused blood to bypass capillary bed

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10
Q

The cycle of contraction and relaxing of the precapillary sphincter is called what?

A

vasomotion

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11
Q

At any time how much of the capillary beds is open?

A

one qarter

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12
Q

What percent of total blood volume is in the capillaries at given moment?

A

5%

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13
Q

Perfusion:

A

the amount of blood entering capillaries per unit time per gram of tissue

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14
Q

Venules are what type of veins? what is the diameter of them?

A

the smallest veins from 8 to 100 micrometers diamer

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15
Q

Venules are companion vessels with ___?

A

arterioles

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16
Q

The smallest venules are what? what do these do?

A

smallest, postcapillary venules..they drain capillaries

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17
Q

Venules merge to form what?

A

veins

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18
Q

Small and medium sized veins companion with what?

A

muscular arteries

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19
Q

The largest veins travel with what?

A

elastic arteries

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20
Q

Most veins have numerous ___. what is the fxn of these?

A

valves to prevent blood from pooling in the lungs

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21
Q

Valves in the veins are from from what?

A

tunic intima, elastic and collagen fibers

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22
Q

What is the “simple” pathway of blood vessel arrangement

A

One major artery delivering blood to organ or region
• branches into smaller arteries to become arterioles
• each arteriole feeding into single capillary bed
• drained by venule
• merge to one major vein

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23
Q

How many alternative pathways of blood vessels are there?

A

multiple alternative pathways possible

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24
Q

Arterial anastamosis

A

two or more arteries converging to supply same region
• e.g., superior and inferior epigastric arteries supplying abdominal
wall

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25
Q

Alternative pathway Portal system is blood flowing through how many capillary beds?

A

two

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26
Q

The beds in portal system are separated by what?

A

a portal vein

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27
Q

Oxygen hormones and nutrients diffuse how and where does it move to?

A
  • move from higher concentration in blood

- move into interstitial fluid and tissue cells

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28
Q

Carbon dioxide and waste products diffuse how and where?

A
  • diffuse from higher concentration in tissue to blood
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29
Q

Bulk flow :

A

movement of large amounts of fluids and dissolved substances

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30
Q

How does bulk flow move (direction wise etc)?

A

in one direction down a pressure gradient

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31
Q

The direction of movement of bulk flow is dependent n what?

A

net pressure of opposing forces

  • hydrostatic pressure and colloid pressure
  • direciton of net flow calculated through these valves
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32
Q

What are the two bulk flow types?

A

filtration and reabsorption

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33
Q

Bulk flow: Filtration is the movemtn of fluid where? what can flow? what is blocked and where does filtration occur in the capillary?

A
  • movement of fluid out of blood through openings in capillaries
  • fluid and small solutes flowing easily
  • larger solutes blocked
  • occurs on arterial end of capillary
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34
Q

Bulk flow: reabsoprtion is movement of fluid where? where does this occur?

A
  • movement of fluid back into blood

* on venous end

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35
Q

Hydrostatic pressure is what?

A

Physical force exerted by fluid on a structure

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36
Q

Blood hydrostatic pressure is? what does it promote?

A

force exerted per unit area by blood on wall

• promotes filtration from capillary

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37
Q

Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure is what?

A

force of interstitial fluid on external blood vessel

• close to 0 in most tissues

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38
Q

Colloid osmtotic pressure is what?

A

– Pull of water into tissue by tissue’s protein concentration (colloid)

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39
Q

Blood colloid pressure is what? what does it promote?

A

draws fluid into blood due to blood proteins

• promotes reabsorption, opposing hydrostatic pressure

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40
Q

Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure is what? is it low or high…and why?

A
  • force drawing fluid into interstitial fluid

* few proteins present, so relatively low (0 to 5 mm Hg)

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41
Q

Net filtration pressure calculation:

A
  • Net hydrostatic pressure
    • difference between blood and interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressures
    – Net colloid osmotic pressure
    • difference between blood and interstitial fluid osmotic pressures
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42
Q

The lymphatic system picks up what, where? What percent of fluid is not reabsorbed by the capillary?

A

– Picks up excess fluid not reabsorbed at venous capillary end
• 15% of fluid not reabsorbed by capillary

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43
Q

The lymphatic system filters what and returns it where?

A

– Filters fluid and returns it to venous circulation

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44
Q

If lymph vessels were nonfunctional, what
would happen to the amount of interstitial
fluid around the capillary bed?

A

This fluid would increase, potentially leading to

edema.

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45
Q

The degree of vasculariztion determines what?

A

– Determines potential ability of blood delivery

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46
Q

Brain, skeletal muscle, heart, liver is highly vascularized or little?

A

highly

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47
Q

Tendons and Ligaments are highly vascularized or little?

A

little

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48
Q

Angiogenesis:

A

formation of new blood vessels in tissues

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49
Q

Angiogenesis helps provide what?

A

adequate perfusion through anatomic changes

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50
Q

Angiogenesis occurs in what time frame?

A

Occurs over several weeks to months

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51
Q

Angiogenesis is stimulated when? (3 things)

A

• skeletal muscle in response to aerobic training
• adipose tissue with weight gain
• occlusion of coronary vessels, providing alternative routes for
blood

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52
Q

Regression:

A

Return to previous state of blood vessels (before angiogenesis)

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53
Q

Regression may occur in what? (two things)

A
  • some skeletal muscle vessels after individual becomes sedentary
  • adipose tissue when tissue decreased
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54
Q

Autoregulation and changing metabolic activity:

A

Process by which tissue controls local blood flow

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55
Q

Stimulus of inadequate perfusion due to increased metabolic activity like what (3) things?

A

oxygen and nutrient levels declining
• increase in carbon dioxide, lactic acid, H+, K+
• act as local vasodilators

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56
Q

Autoregulation and changing metabolic activity is a negative feedback loop which means what?

A

• as perfusion increases, vessels constricting in response

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57
Q

Short-term regulation due to damaged tissue or as

part of the body’s defense system includes inflammation which is what?

A

• vasoactive chemical released from damaged tissue, leukocytes,
platelets

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58
Q

Chemicals involved with inflammation are histamine and bradykinin which does what (3) things?

A

release in response to trauma, allergy, infection, exercise
– cause vasodilation by directly stimulating arterioles
– may also stimulate release of nitric oxide, vasodilator

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59
Q

Total blood flow:

A

– Amount of blood transported through vasculature per time

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60
Q

Total blood flow is equal to what? it may increase significantly with what? what happens if it does increase or decrease?

A

May increase significantly with exercise
– If increases, more blood available to tissues
– If decreases, less available to tissues

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61
Q

Blood pressure:

A

Force per unit area of blood against vessel wall

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62
Q

Blood pressure is the driving force for what?

A

propelling blood through the vessels

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63
Q

Change in blood presure from one end to the other is what?

A

blood pressure gradient

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64
Q

Arterial blood pressure is blood flow pulsatile because of what?

A

ventricles contracting and relaxing

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65
Q

Arterial blood pressure involves what two pressures?

A

systolic pressure and diastolic pressure

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66
Q

Systolic pressure (3)

A

pressure in arteries during ventricular systole
• highest pressure generated in arteries
• artery maximally stretched

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67
Q

Diastolic pressure (3)

A

pressure in arteries during ventricular diastole
• lowest pressure generated in arteries
• artery maximally recoiled

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68
Q

Blood pressure readings is given how? what is the avg blood pressure for an avg adult?

A
  • given as ratio of systolic to diastolic

* average adult, about 120/80 mm Hg

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69
Q

Pulse pressure is? how is it calculated?

A
  • additional pressure on arteries when heart contracting
  • difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure
  • e.g., for blood pressure 120/80, pulse pressure 40
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70
Q

Pulse pressure measures what? where is it the highest?

A
  • measures elasticity and recoil of arteries

* highest in arteries closest to the heart

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71
Q

Pulse pressure may change with what 4 things?

A

may change temporarily with exercise
• with age and disease, arteries losing elasticity
– makes more difficult for heart to pump blood
– may see changes in pulse pressure

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72
Q

Pulse:

A

– throbbing sensations associated with pulse pressure

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73
Q

Mean arterial pressure (MAP):

A

average of blood pressure forces on arteries

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74
Q

Formula…..MAP =

A

diastolic pressure + 1/3 pulse pressure

E.g., with blood pressure 120/80
MAP = 80 + 40/3 = 93

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75
Q

Mean arterial pressure (MAP) provides what?

A

index of perfusion

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76
Q

When blood is in capillary pulse pressure = what?

A

0

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77
Q

Capillary blood pressure needs to be high enough for what?

A

exchange of substances

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78
Q

Capillary blood pressure needs to be low enugh for what?

A

to not damage vessels

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79
Q

Capillary blood pressure at arteriel end is about what? and venous end?

A

40 mmHg, venous end = 20 mm Hg

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80
Q

Capillary blood pressure accounts for what?

A

Accounts for filtration and reabsorption at respective ends

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81
Q

Venous return:

A

movement of blood from capillaries back to heart

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82
Q

Venous blood pressure in venules? what about when it reaches right atrium?

A

20 mm Hg , almost 0 when reaches right atrium

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83
Q

Venous blood pressure has a small gradient which means what?

A

may be insufficient to move blood when standing

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84
Q

How does blood move from feet upward?

A

Skeletal muscle pump

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85
Q

Skeletal muscle pump: (5)

A

assists movement of blood within the limbs
• with muscle contraction, veins squeezed to help propel blood
• valves helping prevent backflow
• blood pumped more quickly back to heart during exercise
• with prolonged inactivity, blood pooling in the leg veins

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86
Q

Respiratory pump

A

• assists movement of blood within thoracic cavity
• diaphragm contracts and flattens with inspiration
- blood propelled from abdominal cavity to thoracic cavity

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87
Q

Respiratory pump abdominal cavity:

A

decreasing in volume and increasing in pressure

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88
Q

Respiratory pump thoracic cavity:

A

increasing in volume and decreasing in pressure

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89
Q

– Respiratory pump (continued)

A

with expiration diaphragm relaxing
• decreased intra-abdominal pressure
• helps blood move from vessels back into heart
• helps blood move from limbs into abdominal vessels
• effect increased with increased breathing rate

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90
Q

Blood pressure gradient in the systemic circulation (arteries, vena cava = gradient)

A

– Mean blood pressure in arteries, 93 mm Hg
– Blood pressure in vena cava 0
– Blood pressure gradient 93 mm Hg

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91
Q

The blood pressure gradient is the driving force to move what through what?

A

– Driving force to move blood through vasculature
• increasing gradient increasing total blood flow
• decreasing gradient decreasing total blood flow

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92
Q

Blood pressure gradient is increased by what?

A

increases cardiac output

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93
Q

What is the pulse pressure and mean
arterial pressure for a reading of 155/95 mm
Hg?

A

Pulse pressure = 60 mmHg
MAP = diastolic + 1/3 pulse pressure
= 95 + 1/3 (60) = 115

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94
Q

Clinical View: Detecting a Pulse Point

A

– Pulse, throbbing of arterial wall
– Allows determination of heartbeat
– More forceful pulse associated with higher pressure
– Absence indicates flow to body part lacking
– Pulse points
• where artery may be compressed against solid structure
• e.g., radial, common carotid, femoral, dorsalis pedis, and others

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95
Q

Clinical View: Cerebral Edema

A

– Excess interstitial fluid in the brain
– Can occur if MAP greater than 160 mm Hg
– Increases filtration in brain capillaries
– No lymph vessels here
– Accumulation of excess fluid

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96
Q

Clinical View: Deep Vein Thrombosis

A

– Clot (thrombosis) in a vein
– Most common site the calf
– Heart disease, immobility, risk factors
– Fever, tenderness, and redness
– Pain and swelling in areas drained, rapid heartbeat
– Pulmonary embolus, most serious complication
• clot breaking free and lodging in pulmonary artery
• can cause respiratory failure and death

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97
Q

Clinical View: Varicose Veins

A

– Dilated and tortuous
– Nonfunctional valves causing blood pooling
– Most common in superficial veins of lower limbs
– Result of genetics, aging, extended standing, obesity, pregnancy
– In anorectal region, hemorrhoids
• due to increased abdominal pressure

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98
Q

Clinical View: Circulatory Shock

A

– Insufficient blood flow to perfuse tissues
– Can be due to impaired heart
– Can be due to low venous return
• from hemorrhage, dehydration
• obstructed vein
• venous pooling from extensive vasodilation from bacterial toxins
• brainstem trauma causing loss of vasomotor tone
• others

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99
Q

Resistance

A

Amount of friction blood experiences traveling through vessels

100
Q

Resistance is due to what?

A

– Due to contact between blood and vessel wall

101
Q

Resistance influences and opposes what?

A

– Influences and opposes total blood flow

102
Q

Peripheral resistance:

A

• resistance of blood in blood vessels (as opposed to heart)

103
Q

Resistance is affected by what 3 things?

A

– Affected by viscosity, vessel length, lumen size

104
Q

• Vessel length

A

– Resistance increasing with length
• greater friction experienced by fluid
• shorter vessels with less resistance than longer of same diameter
• normally vessels maintaining same length
– may be increased during weight gain due to angiogenesis

105
Q

Vessel radius

A

– The major way resistance regulated
– Flow fastest in the center of lumen
• encounters resistance from nearby vessel wall
– Different flow rate within vessel
• laminar flow
– As diameter increases, less blood near edges
• overall blood flow increases

106
Q

Small changes in vessel radius yields large changes in ___.

A

resistance

107
Q

Blood pressure needs to be high enough to maintian ____. if too high what happens?

A

to maintain tissue perfusion

- too high damages vesels

108
Q

Blood pressure is dependent on what 3 things?

A

cardiac output, reistance and blood volume

109
Q

Variables with blood pressure are regulated through what two systems?

A

endocrine and nervous

110
Q

Short term regulation of blood pressure occurs through what? it involves what? how does it adjust blood pressure? it altersw hat two things?

A

autonomic reflexes

involve nuclei within medulla oblongata
• adjust blood pressure quickly
• e.g., arising from sitting to standing position
• alter cardiac output, resistance, or both

111
Q

Baroreceptors are what?

A

specializes sensory nerve endings

112
Q

Baroreceptors responds to what? firing rate changes when what happens?

A

stretch in blood vessel walls

- firing rate changes when stretch in blood vessels changes

113
Q

Aortic arch barorecepotrs is located where?

A

• located in tunica externa of aortic arch

114
Q

Aortic arch barorecepotrs transmits nerve signals to what? through what?

A

• transmit nerve signals to cardiovascular center through vagus

115
Q

Aortic arch barorecepotrs are important in regulating what?

A

• important in regulating systemic blood pressure

116
Q

Carotid sinuses are ___ located where?

A

baroreceptors located in tunica external of internal carotid arteries

117
Q

Carotid sinuses transmit nerve signals back to the what?

A

• transmit nerve signals back to the cardiovascular center

118
Q

Carotid sinuses monitors blod pressure where in the body?

A

• monitor blood pressure in head, neck, brain

119
Q

Carotid sinuses are more sensitive to ___ than ______.

A

• more sensitive to blood pressure changes than aortic arch receptors

120
Q

Autonomic reflexes are activated in response to what?

A

changes in stretch

121
Q

Barorecptor reflexes are initiated by ___ or ___ in blood pressure?

A

decrease or increase in blood pressure

122
Q

With decreased blood pressure what happens to autonomic reflexes?

A

• reflexes causing increased cardiac output, increased resistance, larger circulating blood volume

123
Q

With increased blood pressure what happens to autonomic reflexes?

A

• reflexes causing decreased cardiac output, decreased resistance,
smaller circulating blood volume

124
Q

Autonomic reflexes responds best to what two things?

A

– Respond best to sudden, short-term changes in blood pressure

125
Q

Stimulators of chemoreceptors are what ?

A

high carbon dioxide, low pH, very low oxyen

126
Q

Antidiuretic hormone increases what which helps maintain what?

A

• increases absorption of water in the kidney
– helps maintain blood volume and pressure
• stimulates thirst center to increase fluid intake
• causes vasoconstriction with extreme low blood volume
– increased peripheral resistance and blood pressure
– why hormone sometimes termed vasopressin

127
Q

– Hypertension

A

chronically elevated blood pressure
• systolic pressure > 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic > 90 mm Hg
• may damage blood vessel walls, making atherosclerosis more likely
• may thicken arteriole walls, arteriolosclerosis
• major cause of heart failure

128
Q

Hypotension

A
  • chronically low blood pressure
  • symptoms of fatigue, dizziness, fainting
  • systolic pressure
129
Q

– Orthostatic hypotension

A

drop in blood pressure after sudden standing
• dizziness, light-headedness, fainting
• blood pressure regulation not occurring quickly enough

130
Q

What device is used to Measure Blood Pressure

A

sphygmomanometer

131
Q

sphygmomanometer

A

cuff wrapped around arm
• stethoscope distal to compressed artery
• cuff inflated until brachial artery completely compressed
• pressure in cuff decreased as air released

132
Q

Systolic pressure, top number is pressure in what?

A

pressure in arteries when heart contracts

• sound heard when pressure sufficient to overcome cuff pressure

133
Q

– Diastolic pressure, bottom number is the pressure in what?

A

pressure in arteries when heart relaxes
• sounds no longer heard
• flow now smooth again because cuff not compressing artery

134
Q

• During exercise blood flow is ___ due to ___ and ___ heartbeat. Also due to blood removal from _______. Ensures metabolically active tissues recieving ____ blood.

A

– Increase in total blood flow
– Due to faster and stronger heartbeat
– Also due to blood removal from venous reservoirs
– Ensures metabolically active tissues receiving adequate blood

135
Q

During exercise there is an ___ flow to coronary vessels that helps with what?

A

Increased flow to coronary vessels

• helps ensure sufficient oxygen reaches cardiac muscle

136
Q

During exercise skeletal muscle blood flow increasing bc it’s needed to meet __________.

A

high metabolic demands

137
Q

During exercise blood flow increased to skin why?

A

to dissipate heat

138
Q

During exercise blood flow is less to which areas?

A

• to abdominal organs, kidneys, less metabolically active structures

139
Q

Hepatic portal system venous return from abdomen and the hepatic portal system

A
  • blood from digestive organs not returned directly to vena cava
  • transported via system into the liver
  • then drains to inferior vena cava
  • digested nutrients processed by the liver
  • harmful agents absorbed in blood processed by liver
  • receives products of erythrocyte destruction from spleen
140
Q

Foramen ovale

A

pressure greater on left side of heart
• two flaps of interatrial septum closing off foramen
• remnant, thin depression in septum wall, fossa ovalis

141
Q

Ductus arteriosus

A
  • closes within 10 to 15 hours of birth

* becomes fibrous structure, ligamentum arteriosum

142
Q

Clinical View: Patent Ductus Arteriosus

A

– When ductus fails to close after birth
– When patent
• blood flowing from aorta able to enter pulmonary system
• high blood pressure in pulmonary circulation
• mixing of deoxygenated blood with oxygenated blood
– May be treated with prostaglandin-inhibiting medication or surgery

143
Q

The lymphatic systems include what structures?

A

Tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic vessels

144
Q

Enlargement in the lymphatic organs can indicate what?

A

sign that organs actively engaged in defending the body

145
Q

What is the main job of the lymphatic system?

A

excess fluid to blood to maintain fluid balance

146
Q

Lymph:

A

fluid transported within the lymph vessels

147
Q

What percentage of fluid is not reabsobed into capillaries? what is that in liters?

A

15% of fluid entering interstitial spaces not reabsorbed into capillaries
• about 3 liters daily

148
Q

Why does lymph move into lymphatic capillaries?

A

– Moves passively into lymphatic capillaries due to pressure gradient

149
Q

Lymph is only termed lymph when its where?

A

Termed lymph once inside lymph vessels

150
Q

What are some components of lymph?

A
  • water, dissolved solutes, and small amount of protein

* sometimes cell debris, pathogens, or metastasized cancer cells

151
Q

Lymphatic capillaries absorb what?

A

Closed-ended vessels that absorb interstitial fluid

152
Q

Lymphatic capillaries are absent with what type of tissues?

A

Absent within avascular tissues

• e.g., epithelia

153
Q

Lymphatic capillaries are larger in diameter than what type of capillary?

A

– Larger in diameter than blood capillaries

154
Q

Lymphatic capillaries lack what?

A

Lack basement membrane

155
Q

Lymphatic capillaries have ___ to allow fluid entrance without exit.

A

• one way flaps to allow fluid entrance without exit

156
Q

Anchoring filaments in lymphatic capillaries do what?

A

• help hold endothelial cells to nearby structures

157
Q

Lacteals in lymphatic capillaries are where? they function to do what?

A
  • lymphatic capillaries within the GI tract

* allow for absorption of lipid-soluble substances from GI tract

158
Q

Movement of Lymph into Lymphatic Capillaries

A

– Driving force moving fluid into lymphatic capillaries
• increase in hydrostatic pressure within interstitial space
• rises as additional fluid is filtered from blood capillaries
• increase in pressure “pushes” interstitial fluid into lymphatic capillary
lumen
• the higher the pressure, the greater the fluid entering lymphatic capillary
– Pressure of lymph forcing endothelial cells of vessel to close
• lymph “trapped” within lymphatic vessel
– Lymph transported through network of increasing larger vessels
• lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lymphatic trunks, and lymphatic
ducts

159
Q

Clinical View: Metastasis

A

– Wandering cancerous cells establishing secondary tumors
• develop in other locations in the body (metastasis)
• e.g., breast cancer may metastasize to the lung
– Cancerous cells break free from primary tumor
• transported in the lymph

160
Q

The lymphatic system is without a pump so what structures and mechanisms does it rely on to move lymph through vessels?

A

• contraction of nearby skeletal muscles in limbs
• contraction of respiratory pump in the torso
• pulsatile movement of blood in nearby arteries
• rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in larger lymph vessel walls
- some connecting directly to lymph nodes

161
Q

Lymph nodes do what?

A

Filter lymph and remove unwanted substances

162
Q

Lymph nodes are located where within the body?

A

Located both deep and superficially within the body

163
Q

Lymph nodes typically occur how?

A

occur in clusters receiving lymph from body regions

164
Q

Axillary lymph nodes in armpits receive lymph from where?

A

receive lymph from breast, axilla, and upper limb

165
Q

Inguinal lymph nodes in groin receive lymph from where?

A

receive lymph from lower limb and pelvis

166
Q

Afferent lymphatic vessels do what?

A

bring lymph into lobe

167
Q

Efferent lymph vessels do what?

A

• drains node

168
Q

Efferent lymph vessels originates at involuted portion on node called the what?

A

hilum

169
Q

The capsule of the lymph node extends into the node called the what? What does this do?

A
  • sends internal extension into it, trabeculae

* subdivide node into compartments

170
Q

Lymph Flow Through Lymph Nodes (steps)

A

Enters node through afferent lymphatic vessels
– Makes its way through lymph node sinuses
– Lymph continuously monitored for presence of foreign material
– Macrophages
• remove foreign debris from the lymph
– Lymph exiting lymph node through efferent vessel
– May enter nearby lymph node in cluster

171
Q

Swollen lymph nodes become tender why? its a sign of what?

A

become tender with infection
• sign that lymphocytes proliferating and fighting infection
• can palpate swollen superficial lymph nodes

172
Q

Clinical View: Lymphoma

A

– Malignant neoplasm from lymphatic structures
– Nontender, enlarged lymph node
• possible night sweats, fever, and weight loss

173
Q

Hodgkin lymphoma

A
  • affects young adults and people over 60

* if caught early, cured by excision, radiation, and chemotherapy

174
Q

– Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

A
  • more common

* some kinds aggressive, others slow growing

175
Q

Whats the largest lymphatic organ?

A

the spleen

176
Q

The spleen always contains a ____ where blood vessels and nerves enter.

A

hilum

177
Q

The spleen is supplied by what?

A

Splenic artery

178
Q

The spleen is drained by what?

A

Splenic vein

179
Q

White pulp in the spleen is what?

A

Clusters of T and B lymphocytes and macrophages

180
Q

The white pulp contains what type of artery?

A

Central artery

181
Q

The spleen fucntions to filter what?

A

blood

182
Q

White pulp lymphatic cells function to do what?

A

monitor blood for foreign materials and bacteria

183
Q

The spleen also forms blood cells during fetal development until what month?

A

5th month

184
Q

Monitoring Blood as it Flows Through the Spleen (blood enters..then steps)

A

– Blood first entering through central artery (white pulp)
– Travels through sinusoids of red pulp
• is in contact with splenic cords of red pulp
• macrophages here phagocytize:
– bacteria and foreign debris
– old and defective erythrocytes and platelets
– Travels through venules and out splenic vein

185
Q

Clinical View: Splenectomy

A

Surgical removal of the spleen
– May be performed due to:
• ruptured spleen from abdominal injury (most common)
• infection, cyst, or tumor
• lymphoma or other cancer
• blood disorders (e.g., sickle cell anemia)
– May be more prone to life-threatening infection

186
Q

Clinical View: Tonsillitis and Tonsillectomy

A

Acute tonsillitis, inflammation and infection of the tonsils
– Palatine tonsils most commonly affected
• redden and enlarge
• may partially obstruct pharynx
– Fever, chills, sore throat, and difficulty swallowing
– May be infected by viruses or bacteria
– Persistent recurrent infections, chronic tonsillitis
• may require tonsillectomy, surgical removal of tonsils

187
Q

The immune system protects us from what?

A

– Protects us from infectious agents and harmful substances

• typically without our awareness

188
Q

The function of the immune system is dependent on what?

A

on specific type of infectious agent

189
Q

Infectious agents are organism that cause what?

A

damage or death to host organism

190
Q

If an infectious agent causes harms it’s termed what?

A

pathogenic

191
Q

What are the five major categories of infectious agents?

A
  • bacteria
  • viruses
  • fungi
  • protozoans
  • multicellular parasites
192
Q

Bacteria is what type of celled organism, what size is it usually and what 3 shapes doe sit come in ?

A 
– Single-celled prokaryotic organisms
– 1-2 micrometers, enclosed by cell wall
– Come in multiple shapes
• spherical (cocci)
• rodlike (bacilli)
• coiled (spirilla)
193
Q

Some bacteria come with increased virulence which is what?

A

ability t cause serious illness

194
Q

Why is virgulence increased

A

due to presence of external polysaccharide capsule

-others releasing enzymes or toxins

195
Q

Are viruses cells?

A

no

196
Q

Do viruses have DNA or RNA?

A

composed OF DNA or RNA

197
Q

Viruses are bigger or smaller than bacteria?

A

smaller

198
Q

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites which means what?

A

must enter cell to reproduce

199
Q

How do viruses reproduce? steps

A

infected cell directed to synthesize copies of DNA or RNA and
capsid
• viral particles formed within infected cells
• released from them to infect surrounding cells
• cell ultimately killed by virus or immune system

200
Q

Fungi is what type of cell

A

eukaryotic

201
Q

Funci has a cell wall ___ to plasma membrane?

A

external

202
Q

Fungi releases proteolytic enzymes which induce what?

A

inflammation causing redness and swelling

203
Q

Protozoans are which type of cell?

A

eukaryotic cells

204
Q

Protozoans lack what?

A

cell wall

205
Q

Protozoans are ____ and ____ prasites?

A

intracellular and extracellular parasites

206
Q

What are two examples of diseases protozoans cuase?

A

malaria and trichomoniasis

207
Q

Multicellular parasites are ___ organisms>

A

nonmicroscopic organism

208
Q

Multicellulr parasites resisde in host from which they take what?

A

nourishment

209
Q

Examples of mulicelluar parasites are what?

A

parasitic worms and tapeworms

210
Q

Prions ar neither ___ or ____.

A

cells or viruses

211
Q

Prions are what?

A

small fragments of infectious proteins

212
Q

Prions cause diseases where?

A

in nervous tissue

213
Q

Creutzfeldt-jakob disease is also called what? Its caused by what? it can be spread from what to what by what?

A

also called mad cow disease

  • caused by prions
  • can be spread from cows to humans by consuming infected meat
214
Q

Leukocytes are found in what type of bone marrow?

A

red bone marrow

215
Q

3 types of granulocytes:

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

216
Q

Monocytes become what when what?

A

becomes macrophages when take up residence in tissue

217
Q

Lymphocytes include:

A

b-lymphocytes, t-lymphocytes, NK cells

218
Q

Innatue immunity protects against numerous __ ____.

A

different substances

219
Q

Innate immunity comes later or born with it?

A

born with it

220
Q

Innate immunity includes carriers of __ and ___ membranes. ___ cellular and ____ _____ defenses.

A

skin and muscosal membranes

- nonspecific cellular and molecular internal defenses

221
Q

Innate immunity does not require what?

A

exposure to previous foreign substances

222
Q

How does innate immunity respont to harmful agents?

A

responds immediately to potentially harmful agents

223
Q

immunity invovleswhich specific cells?

A

t lymphocytes and b-lymphocytes

224
Q

Adaptive immunity responds to which types of foreign substances

A

responds to different foreign substances

225
Q

Adaptive immunity wont respond to what?

A

bacteria cuasing strept throat

226
Q

How long does adaptive immunity take to be effective?

A

takes several days to e effective

227
Q

Innate immunity responds ____ to a ______ of harmful substances

A

Respond nonspecifically to wide range of harmful substances

228
Q

What is our first line of defense in innate immunity?

A

• skin and mucosal membrane

229
Q

What is our seond life of defense with innate immunity ? (4)

A
  • internal processes of innate immunity
  • activities of neutrophils, macrophages, NK cells
  • chemicals such as interferon and complement
  • physiological processes such as inflammation and fever
230
Q

the physical barrier of skin is formed by what?

A

epidermis and dermis

231
Q

Skin releases___ substances like what 4 things?

A

antimicrobial substances —immunoglobulin A (IgA), lysozyme, sebum, defensins

232
Q

Skin has a normal flora that helps prevent what?

A

• help prevent growth of pathogenic microorganisms

233
Q

Mucosal memrane barriers produce what?

A

mucin

234
Q

When musin is hydrated it forms what?

A

mucous

235
Q

Most prevelant WBC in blood?

A

Neutrophil

236
Q

FIrst cell to arrive during inflammatory response?

A

neutrophil

237
Q

Macrophages reside where?

A

in tissues throughout the body

238
Q

Macrophages arrive ___ and stay ___ than neutrophils

A

later and stay longer

239
Q

Basophils and mast cells release ___ during inflammatory response?

A

granules

240
Q

Basophils and mast cells contain Histamine that does what?

A

increases vasodilation and capillary permeability

241
Q

Basophils and mast cells contain heparin which is an?

A

anticoagulant

242
Q

Mast cells and basophils release ___ from the plasma membrane? it ___ during inflammation?

A

eicosanoids which increases during inflammation

243
Q

NK cells destroy wide variety of what? give soem examples

A

destroy wide variety of unwanted cells

- virus and bacteria-infected cells, tumor cells, cells of transplanted tissue

244
Q

NK cells are formed in what and circulate where?

A

fromed in bone marrow and circulate in blood

245
Q

NK cells accumulate where in the lymphatic tissues?

A

accumulate in secondary lymphatic structures

246
Q

NK cells patrol body detecting what? what is this termed?

A

– Patrol the body detecting unhealthy cells

• termed immune surveillance

247
Q

1

A

1

A&P 2! (6 decks)

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